A  STUDY  OF  THE  ORIGIN 

OF  THE 
JAPANESE  STATE 


BY 

SEIGO  TAKAHASHI,  A.M. 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIRE- 
MENTS FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY, 
IN  THE    FACULTY   OF  POLITICAL  SCIENCE, 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY." 


New  York,  1917 


PRINTED  BY 

W.  D.  GRAY,  227  West  17th  Street 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

1917 


T3 


TO 
PROFESSOR  SAKUSABURO  UCHIGASAKI 


CONTENTS 

Introduction. 
Chapter. 

I.     The  Most  Ancient  Literary  Records. 
II.     Racial  Factors. 

III.  The  Beginning  of  the  State. 

IV.  General  Conclusions. 


FOREWORD. 

In  this  volume  I  have  endeavored  to  set  down  the  results  of 
my  investigation  regarding  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  State.  The 
original  Kojiki  and  Nihongi  contained  in  the  Kokushi-Taikei 
have  been  used.  In  the  text,  Kojiki  is  indicated  by  K,  the 
Nihongi,  by  N.  I  have  sometimes  been  obliged  to  use  transla- 
tions of  the  Kojiki  and  the  Nihongi,  for  which  I  am  especially 
indebted  to  the  splendid  work  of  Mr.  Aston  and  Dr.  Chamber- 
lain. In  some  cases,  I  have  found  it  necessary  to  make  slight 
changes  in  the  wording  of  parts  which  I  have  quoted,  for  which 
I  offer  apologies. 

Time  has  not  permitted  me  to  make  an  index,  but  I  hope  to 
be  able  to  do  this  in  the  near  future. 

I  am  indebted  to  Miss  Genevieve  Caulfield  for  her  scholarly 
advice  and  correction  of  the  English.  I  am  also  indebted  to 
Professor  Charles  A.  Beard,  under  whom  I  specialized  in  Politics, 
for  his  counsel  and  guidance. 

SEIGO  TAKAHASHI. 
New  York,  October  1917. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Most  students  of  history  are  often  puzzled  by  the  romance 
of  the  past,  especially  when  they  deal  with  the  events  of  an- 
tiquity. 

Archaeologists  tell  us  that  human  society  is  very  old,  and 
was  fairly  well  developed  long  before  the  art  of  writing  was 
invented. 

Things  which  happened  in  remote  ages  were  transmitted  to 
the  historic  period  in  the  form  of  oral  traditions,  and  it  seems 
probable  that,  when  recorded,  these  stories  had  departed  far 
from  the  true  picture  of  the  times.  Moreover,  the  early  writers 
were  generally  uncritical  and  whatever  their  purpose  might 
have  been,  they  have  always  been  inclined  to  adorn  things  of 
old. 

Herodotus,  the  father  of  history,  is  said  to  have  been  more 
picturesque  than  critical,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  the  cele- 
brated Thucydides  accused  him  of  caring  more  about  pleasing 
his  readers  than  about  telling  the  truth.  Far  more  uncritical 
than  the  Greek  historian  were  the  Japanese  writers  of  the  eighth 
century  A.  D.,  whose  works1  are  romantic  and  contradictory  in 
character,  despite  the  fact  that  they  were  commanded  by  the 
rulers  to  place  on  record  the  genuine  traditions  and  scattered 
documents  concerning  the  early  life  of  the  nation. 

It  matters  little  whether  these  romantic  stories  are  accepta- 
ble to  us  or  not.  The  fact  remains  that  they  have  come  down  to 
the  present  time  and  present  a  fascinating  problem  to  the  mod- 
ern students. 


1.  The  Kojiki  and  Nihongi. 


The  mere  analytical  study  of  ancient  writings  will  be  of  little 
assistance  to  the  students  of  today  in  their  impartial  research. 
They  must  search  in  many  fields  for  a  firmer  foothold  than  old 
records  alone  can  afford.  Archaeology,  Anthropology,  Philol- 
ogy, and  the  other  sciences  are  indispensable  to  the  study  of 
ancient  society. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  at  present,  archaeologists  and 
anthropologists  are  revealing  to  us  primitive  types  of  society 
which  are  quite  different  from  those  dealt  with  by  the  eighteenth 
century  philosophers,  while  our  predecessors  of  the  last  century, 
men  like  Stubbs,  Maine,  Maitland,  Gierke,  Brunner,  Coulanges, 
and  Spencer,  have  disclosed  to  us  the  processes  in  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  early  political  institutions  of  Europe. 
Step  by  step  the  beautiful  romance  which  once  veiled  all  old 
European  societies  is  now  losing  its  charm  for  Occidental 
students,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  an  authoritative 
outline  of  the  early  institutional  life  among  European  nations 
is  almost  established.2 

How  different  is  the  situation  in  Japan! 

Although  we  have  had  bequeathed  to  us  from  our  fore- 
fathers two  most  valuable  sources*  for  the  study  of  the  history 
of  the  nation,  still  we  have  neither  an  exhaustive  work  produced 
by  scientific  research  nor,  if  we  leave  out  of  account  Pro- 
fessor K  Asakawa's  "The  Early  Institutional  Life  of  Japan," 
have  we  an  original  exposition  on  the  subject  by  a  fearless 
scholar. 

There  seems  no  doubt  that  when  the  celebrated  Filmer  wrote 
"Patriarcha,"  the  ancient  theory  of  the  divine  origin  of  kings 
appealed  strongly  to  men  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  and 
as  the  succeeding  centuries  have  witnessed,  the  doctrine  was 


2.  Jenks,  History  of  Politics. 

3.  The  Kojiki  and  XihongL 


10 


entirely  brushed  aside  long  before  the  formative  years  of  the 
new  science. 

So  also  the  modern  Frenchmen  did  away  with  Bossuet's 
natural  monarchy.4 

It  is  an  established  fact  that  an  abstract  principle  as  such  has 
no  value  for  the  modern  European  mind  which  seeks  the  his- 
torical facts  as  primarily  important,  though  it  is  generally  ac- 
cepted that  all  doctrines  have  more  or  less  utility. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Japan,  the  island  people  have  ever 
kept  in  their  hearts  the  patriarchal  theory  as  the  explanation  of 
the  origin  of  the  state.  To  them,  the  Imperial  Ancestors  are 
also  their  own  ancestors,  and  consequently  the  Imperial  house 
is  the  principal  branch  of  the  whole  national  family.8 

Of  course,  the  systematic  formulation  of  this  theory  belongs 
to  the  modern  epoch,  but  that  its  principal  idea  had  its  origin 
in  the  pre-historic  period,  and  that  ever  since  it  has  been  con- 
secrated by  the  political  religion,  "Shinto,"  seem  undeniable. 

It  is  true  that  in  Japanese  history  the  actual  political  power 
has  always  shifted  from  one  controlling  element  to  another, 
and  yet  this  did  not  cause  the  destruction  of  the  patriarchal 
principle. 

Thus,  today,  the  patriarchal  theory  is  still  a  fundamental  be- 
lief among  the  Japanese  people.  No  matter  whether  it  is  sup- 
ported by  historical  evidences  or  not,  it  represents  the  prevail- 
ing sentiment  of  the  nation.  Numerous  as  are  our  historians 
and  students  of  politics,  no  one  ever  seems  tempted  to  examine 
the  historical  validity  of  this  orthodox  theory. 

4.  La  Politique  dree  des  propres  paroles  de  1'ficriture  Sainte. 

5.  Hagino,  Dainihon-Tsushi,  vol.  I,  pp.  1-2. 
Ariga,    Dainihon-Rekishi,   vol.    I,   pp.    1-2. 

II 


One  who  has  studied  American  history  knows  well  that  while 
the  hostile  feeling  between  the  North  and  the  South  was  still 
hotly  raging,  no  history  of  the  Civil  War,  such  as  Jefferson 
Davis'  "The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government," 
could  be  accepted  in  the  North.  In  these  days,  however,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  most  American  people  recognize  the  fact 
that  the  study  of  Southern  politics  is  indispensable  to  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  true  nature  of  the  brothers'  war. 

In  Japan,  since  the  sacredness  of  the  patriarchal  origin  of 
state  has  always  been  a  deep-rooted  belief  among  the  dominat- 
ing people,  it  appears  quite  natural  that  the  ordinary  students 
would  not  dare  to  undertake  such  a  critical  investigation  as 
would  oppose  the  preconception  of  the  ruling  people. 

If  this  be  true,  we  can  understand  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant reasons  why  our  students  of  history  and  politics  have 
assumed  an  uncritical  attitude.  It  does  not  follow,  however, 
that  because  we  have  no  fearless  students  the  patriarchal  theory 
is  historically  unsound.  The  old  records,  which  undoubtedly 
contain  much  of  real  value,  must  be  re-examined  by  critical 
students  who  understand  the  spirit  of  modern  science.  If,  after 
such  an  examination,  there  be  found  historical  evidences  quite 
different  from  the  prevailing  theory,  they  must  be  the  basis 
upon  which  to  construct  a  new  theory  regarding  the  origin  of 
the  Japanese  State. 

Passing  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  results  of  archaeo- 
logical and  anthropological  research,  we  find  a  more  or  less 
different  situation. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Japanese  archaeologists  and  an- 
thropologists have  up  to  this  time  made  any  great  contribution 
to  the  study  of  antiquity.  But  it  is  evident,  at  a  casual  glance, 
that  their  diligent  investigation  of  material  remains  of  pre- 
historic times,  characteristics  of  bodily  form,  traits  of  language, 

12 


economic  achievements,  peculiar  customs  and  beliefs,  is  grad- 
ually clearing  up  the  darkness  of  past  ages.  For  instance,  ancient 
spulchres  are  constantly  being  unearthed  by  serious  students  in 
this  field.  They  are  not  only  discovering  various  old  imple- 
ments, shell-heaps,  caverns  and  monuments,  but  are  also  mak- 
ing considerable  progress  in  searching  for  the  racial  sources 
of  the  original  population  of  Japan.6 

It  is  noteworthy,  moreover,  that,  like  the  Occidental  stu- 
dents, they  are  endeavoring  to  disregard  the  subjective  values 
of  historical  happenings  and  that  they  try  to  consider  them 
objectively,  simply  as  a  sequence  of  events,  regardless  of  their 
influence  upon  the  course  of  our  own  civilization. 

Thus  there  lies  great  hope  in  our  archaeologists  and  anthro- 
pologists. Their  opinion  regarding  the  earliest  society  is  far 
more  reliable  than  that  of  the  historians.  With  their  aid  we 
can  obtain  a  more  exact  and  uncolored  picture  of  the  beginning 
of  the  state. 

One  of  the  most  salutary  utilities  in  writing  a  history  con- 
forming to  the  spirit  of  modern  science  consists  in  the  fact 
that  it  induces  students  of  politics  to  re-examine  the  historical 
soundness  of  the  existing  theories  regarding  the  nature  of  the 
state,  thus  leading  them  to  a  formulation  of  more  scientific 
theory. 

At  present  there  are  in  Japan  so  many  definitions  of  the 
state  that  we  cannot  enumerate  them.  Yet,  as  a  matter  of 
convenience,  they  can  be  reduced  substantially  to  two. 

One  school  contends  that  the  state  is  an  association  of  men 
who  seek  their  welfare  and  common  advantage  in  their  com- 
bined efforts.7  The  other  insists  that  the  state  is  a  person  or 


6.  See  the  second  chapter  of  the  volume. 

7.  Minobe,  Kenppo-Kowa,  pp.  2-22. 

13 


persons  possessing  sovereignty.8  According  to  the  former,  the 
sovereignty  in  Japan  resides  in  the  body  politic  as  a  whole. 
The  latter  argues,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  Emperor  is  the 
possessor  of  sovereignty  and  is  therefore  the  state. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  whatever  different  points  of  view  these 
two  schools  may  have,  both  accept  with  equal  readiness  the 
political  orthodoxy,  namely,  the  patriarchal  origin  of  the  Jap- 
anese state.9 

Moreover,  these  definitions  are  formulated  chiefly  by  stu- 
dents of  law. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  we  may  fairly  say  that  we  have 
as  yet  no  authentic  definition  of  the  state  which  can  be  regarded 
as  the  product  of  careful  consideration  of  the  historical  hap- 
penings, as  well  as  the  various  data  concerning  present  politics. 

World  civilization  is  growing  more  and  more  complex,  and 
it  is  true  that  its  chief  motor  forces  are  states. 
What,  then,  is  the  State? 

Are  our  students  of  Constitutional  Law  scientifically  cor- 
rect in  their  definition? 

Is  the  patriarchal  origin  of  the  state  historically  sound? 

Before  any  answer  can  be  given  to  these  questions,  we  must 
first  re-examine  things  of  old,  for  historical  evidences  are  our 
principal  means  of  understanding  the  past  and  present,  as  well 
as  our  guide  for  the  future  voyage  of  Civilization. 


8.  Nesugi,  Kenppo-Kogi,  pp.  77-208. 

9.  Especially  see,   Dr.   Kakehis'   "Kokkano-Kenkiu." 

14 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  MOST  ANCIENT  LITERARY  RECORDS. 

Our  sources  for  the  study  of  Ancient  Japan  are  the  Kojiki, 
or  "Records  of  Ancient  Matters,"  and  the  Nihongi,  or  "Chron- 
icles of  Ancient  Japan."  These  are  the  only  materials  that  have 
come  down  to  us  from  the  early  times. 

I.      THE  KOJIKI. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  our  language  is  quite  different  from 
Chinese,  it  is  problematical  whether  the  ancient  Japanese  had 
their  own  letters.  Wide  investigation  on  the  subject  has  been 
made  by  many  students  thus  far,  yet  we  possess  no  evidences 
of  anything  except  the  Chinese  letters  having  been  known 
among  the  ancient  Japanese.1 

The  Nihongi  states  that  the  Chinese  letters  were  first  offi- 
cially introduced  into  Japan  through  Korea  during  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Ojin  (270-310  A.  D.).2  Moreover,  we  learn  from 
a  Chinese  source3  that  the  Golden  Chinese  Seal,  which  was 
excavated  in  the  region  of  Naka  County  of  Chikugen  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1786  A.  D.,  is  the  one  which  was  presented  by  the  Chinese 
Emperor,  Kwang  Wu,  to  one  of  the  tribal  Chiefs  of  Kiushiu* 
in  57  A.  D. 

The  Japanese  of  early  times  utilized  the  imported  Chinese 
letters,  and  seem  to  have  been  so  ingenious  that  they  used  the 
Chinese  ideographs  simply  as  representing  sounds  and  with  them 

1.  Gunsho-Ruijiu,    vol.    XIII,    p.    1     (Kogoshui).     Hirata,    however, 
maintains  the  contrary  of  opinion;  Hirata-Zenshiu,  vol.  1  (Seiseki-Gairon, 
pp.  13-15).    Also  see  Rosny,  "Questions  d'  Archeologie  Japonaise." 

2.  K.  pp.  117-118.     N.  p.  118. 

3.  Shiseki-Shiuran,  vol.  XX,  p.  10   (Hau  Han  Su). 

4.  This  seal  is  preserved  at  the  Tokio  Imperial  Museum. 

15 


formed  pure  Japanese  words.  In  addition,  they  adopted  Chi- 
nese as  it  is  for  literary  purposes.  However,  according  to  both 
the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi,  these  characters  were  not  used  ex- 
tensively until  the  Empress  Suiko's  reign  (595-628  A.  D.), 
which  was  subsequent  to  the  introduction  of  Buddhism.  This 
reign  is  associated  with  the  celebrated  name  of  Prince  Shotoku, 
the  great  reformer,  who  first  undertook  the  task  of  compiling 
old  historical  documents.  The  Nihongi  tells  us  that5  in  the 
year  620  A.  D.  Prince  Shotoku  and  the  Minister,  Soga-no- 
Umako,  began  the  work  of  compiling  the  nation's  history,  and 
before  many  years  had  elapsed,  their  labor  resulted  in  the  com- 
pletion of  those  records,  namely,  Tennoki,  or  "Records  of  the 
Emperors/'  and  Kokuki,  or  "Records  of  the  Country,"  and 
Honki,  or  "Original  Records  of  Japanese  Proper."  Yet  no  one 
knows  what  the  contents  of  these  records  were,  for  they  were 
lost  in  645  A.  D.,  when  Soga-no-Yemishi,  the  Chief  of  the  Soga 
Clan,  in  whose  custody  the  records  were  placed,  having  been 
charged  with  the  usurpation  of  the  Imperial  perogatives,  set 
fire  to  his  residence  and  committed  suicide.6 

The  second  attempt  to  compile  the  national  history  was  made 
during  the  reign  of  Emperor  Temmu  (673-686  A.D.). 

It  seems  to  have  been  undertaken  in  two  ways,  for  the 
Nihongi  relates  that  "i6th  day  (of  third  month  of  681)  the 
Emperor  took  his  place  in  the  Great  Hall  of  Audience,  and 
there  gave  orders  to  the  Imperial  Princes,  Kawashima  and 
Osakabe,  to  Prince  Hirose,  Prince  Takeda,  Prince  Kuhada  and 
Prince  Mino,  to  ...  Muraji  Ohoshima  and  Omi  Kobito, 
to  commit  to  writing  the  chronicles  of  the  Emperors,  and  also 
of  matters  of  high  antiquity.  Ohoshima  and  Kobito  took  the  pen 
in  hand  themselves  and  made  notes,"7  while  the  preface  of 
Kojiki  tells  us  that  the  same  Emperor  conceived  that  "The 


5.  N.  p.  390. 

6.  The  Coup  d'  etat  of  645  A.  D. 

16 


Chronicles  of  the  Emperors  and  likewise  the  original  words 
in  the  possession  of  the  various  families  deviate  from  exact 
truth,  and  are  mostly  amplified  by  empty  falsehoods;  if  at  the 
present  time  these  imperfections  be  not  amended,  ere  many 
years  shall  have  elapsed,  the  purport  of  this,  the  great  basis  of 
the  country,  the  grand  foundation  of  the  monarchy,  will  be 
destroyed !" 

On  this  account  he  desired  to  have  "The  Chronicles  of  the 
Emperors  selected  and  recorded,  and  the  old  words  examined 
and  ascertained,  falsehoods  being  erased  and  the  truth  deter- 
mined in  order  to  transmit  (the  latter)  to  after  ages." 

Thereupon,  he  commanded  a  Chamberlain,  Hiyeda-no- 
Are,8  a  man  of  wide  reading  and  powerful  memory,  to  recite 
the  genealogies  of  the  Emperors  and  the  words  of  former  ages. 

Unfortunately,  however,  the  death  of  the  Emperor  brought 
about  the  postponement  of  the  compilation  of  the  work,  and  it 
was  not  until  twenty-five  years  later  that  the  matter  was  taken 
up  by  the  Empress  Gemmyo  (708-715  A.  D.). 

On  the  i8th  of  September,  711  A.  D.,  according  to  the 
Kojiki,9  the  Empress  ordered  a  learned  scholar,  Futo-no-Yasu- 
maro,  to  transcribe  the  records  stored  in  Hiyeda-no-Are's 
memory. 

Four  months'  labor  sufficed  for  this  work,  and  on  the  28th 
of  January,  712  A.  D.,  it  was  submitted  to  the  Empress,  it 
having  been  named  "Kojiki,"  or  "Records  of  Ancient  Matters." 

Such  is  the  history  of  the  "Kojiki,"  the  oldest  history  of 
the  nation,  which  has  been  handed  down  from  the  early  ages 
to  the  present. 


7.  N.  p.  522.     Aston  vol.  II,  p.  350. 

8.  K.  p.  6-7.     Chamberlain,  p.  9-11. 

9.  K.  p.  7-8. 

17 


The  Kojiki  is  written  in  Chinese  characters,  and  its  com- 
position is  in  a  mixed  phonetic  style  (Kana-Mazhiri-Bun) 
which  Yasumaro,  the  author,  in  its  preface  explained  as  follows : 

"In  reverent  obedience  to  the  contents  of  the  Decree,  I  have 
made  a  careful  choice.  But  in  high  antiquity  both  speech  and 
thought  were  so  simple  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  arrange 
phrases  and  compose  periods  in  the  characters  (Chinese  style). 
To  relate  everything  in  an  ideographic  transcription  would  entail 
an  inadequate  expression  of  the  meaning;  to  write  altogether 
according  to  the  phonetic  method  would  make  the  story  of 
events  unduly  lengthy.  For  this  reason  have  I  sometimes  in 
the  same  sentence  used  the  phonetic  and  ideographic  systems 
conjointly,  and  have  sometimes  in  one  matter  used  the  ideo- 
graphic record  exclusively.  .  .  ."10 

This  work  chiefly  relates  the  Imperial  history  from  an  un- 
known date  to  the  end  of  the  Empress  Suiko's  reign — in  detail 
as  it  goes  backward  toward  remote  antiquity  and  more  briefly 
as  it  comes  nearer  the  period  where  the  story  ends.  How- 
ever, as  it  contains  no  chronology,  students  have  no  choice  but 
to  rely  upon  the  Nihongi,  or  "Chronicles  of  Ancient  Japan," 
which  contains  its  own  chronological  account. 

As  stated  above,  it  is  evident  that  the  author  of  the  Kojiki 
derived  his  materials  mainly  from  an  oral  recital  by  Hiyeda-no- 
Are,  but  whether  he  used  any  other  sources  is  entirely  unknown 
to  us. 

Since,  however,  the  Kojiki  was  written  after  the  introduc- 
tion of  Chinese  letters,  literature  and  of  Buddhism,  it  is  evident 
that  its  author  was  influenced  by  Chinese  and  Buddhist  ideals 
and  that  whether  he  would  or  no,  the  character  of  his  work  bore 
some  traces  of  this  influence  in  spite  of  the  extraordinary  care 


10.  K.  pp.  7-8.     Chamberlain,  pp.   11-12. 

18 


which  he  took  to  preserve  the  genuine  tradition  of  the  national 
life. 

Were  we  to  point  out  the  uncritical  character  of  the  Kojiki, 
it  would  entail  endless  arguments.  It  must  therefore  suffice 
to  say  that  the  whole  character  of  the  work  is  misty  and  con- 
tradictory. Nevertheless,  it  speaks  in  the  original  tongue  of 
the  national  traditions  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  the  mod- 
ern students  cannot  disregard  its  practical  value  to  their  his- 
torical research. 

2.      THE  NIHONGI. 

We  have  seen  somewhere  above  that  in  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Temmu,  an  Imperial  Commission  undertook  the  task 
of  compiling  the  national  history,  and  that  the  work  was  left 
unfinished  when  the  Emperor  died  in  686  A.  D.  Twenty-five 
years  later  this  incomplete  work  was  taken  up  by  the  Empress 
Gemmyo,  who  commanded  two  scholars,  Ki  and  Miyake,  to 
compile  it.11  They  concluded  their  work  within  the  same 
year  and  submitted  it  to  the  Sovereign.  With  regard  to  its 
contents,  however,  no  authentic  statement  can  be  made,  for  this 
historical  work  has  not  been  handed  down  to  us.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  it  was  written  in  the  Manyo-Kana  (Chinese  ideo- 
graphs employed  phonetically)12,  and  that  it  proved  unsatis- 
factory to  the  Empress,  who  desired  to  have  the  national  his- 
tory with  its  glory  and  its  dignity.13 

During  the  reign  of  the  same  Sovereign,  we  see  the  crea- 
tion of  another  Commission  to  compile  the  new  glorious  his- 
tory of  the  nation.  The  Commission  was  headed  by  the  Im- 
perial Prince,  Toneri,  and  it  included  among  its  members  Futo- 
no-Yasumaro,  the  author  of  the  Kojiki. 

11.  Z.  K.  p.  83. 

12.  Hagino,    Dainihon-Tsiishi,   vol.    I,    p.    367. 

13.  Ariga,  Dainihon-Rekishi,  vol.  1,  pp.  703-706. 

19 


It  is  not  stated  in  any  records  at  what  time  the  Commis- 
sion took  the  work  of  the  compilation  in  hand,  but  we  know 
from  the  Zoku-Nihongi,  or  "Supplementary  Chronicles  of 
Japan,"  which  were  written  in  787-789,  that  the  Commission 
completed  its  work  in  the  year  720  A.  D.,  while  the  new  Empress 
Gensho  (715-723)  was  on  the  throne.14  The  work  received  the 
name  of  Nihongi,  or  "Chronicles  of  Ancient  Japan,"  and  con- 
sisted originally  of  thirty  volumes  and  one  volume  containing 
the  Imperial  genealogies.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  last  one 
has  been  lost. 

The  Nihongi  is  written  in  the  pure  Chinese  style. 

It  covers  the  period  from  high  antiquity  to  the  last  year  of 
the  Empress  Jito's  reign,  describing  things  in  detail  and  authen- 
tically as  the  story  comes  nearer  the  year  697  A.  D. 

Not  only  the  Kojiki  and  the  Kana  history  of  714,  but  also 
several  other  records  which  were  then  existing  seem  to  have 
been  used  by  the  compilers  of  Nihongi,  for  it  contains  numer- 
ous passages  quoted  from  unnamed  authorities.  Moreover,  we 
notice  that  in  the  Nihongi  different  and  contradictory  stories 
are  often  related  about  the  same  events,  thus  leaving  the  selec- 
tion of  the  correct  account  entirely  to  the  judgment  of  the  stu- 
dents of  succeeding  ages.  In  this  respect  the  Nihongi  resembles 
a  work  of  compilation  rather  than  history  in  the  modern  sense. 

The  Nihongi  has  a  chronology.  It  gives  leading  events,  pre- 
cise years,  even  months  and  dates,  especially  after  the  alleged 
Coronation  of  Jimmu,  the  first  Emperor  of  Japan,  at  Yamato. 
The  year  660  B.  C.  is  assigned  to  the  Coronation  of  the  Emperor 
Jimmu,  and  from  that  time  the  Nihongi  dates  its  own  historic 
period.  A  careful  examination  must  be  made,  however,  to 
ascertain  whether  this  chronological  account  is  correct  or  not. 
But  by  what  standard  can  it  be  judged? 


14.  Z.  K.  p.  122. 

20 


Chinese  and  Korean  history  seem  to  serve  that  purpose. 
How  far,  then,  can  we  attribute  to  Chinese  and  Korean  his- 
tory accuracy  superior  to  that  of  Japanese  history? 

In  so  far  as  the  chronological  research  of  Chinese  history 
is  available,  it  may  be  fairly  said  that  the  year  776  B.  C.  is  the 
beginning  of  a  credible  history  of  China,  for  we  learn  from  an 
old  poem  of  the  Book  of  Odes  that  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  oc- 
curred in  the  Seventh  year  of  the  despotic  reign  of  Yu-Wang 
(781-771  B.  C.),  it  being  regarded  by  the  writer  of  the  poem 
as  a  sign  of  the  Heavenly  indignation  at  Yu-Wang's  crimes. 
This  event  is  calculated  by  the  western  astronomers  and  his- 
torians to  have  actually  occurred  on  August  29,  776  B.  C.15 

With  regard  to  the  Korean  history,  the  situation  is  very 
different.  Yet  it  is  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Aston  that  during  the 
first  five  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  Chinese  annals  contain 
sixteen  notices  of  events  in  Korea,  and  in  ten  of  these  instances 
Korean  history  agrees.16 

If  this  be  true,  there  will  be  no  serious  error  on  the  part 
of  students  in  using  Korean  history  as  well  as  Chinese  in  verifying 
the  accuracy  of  Japanese  history. 

Turning  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  chronological  ac- 
count given  in  the  Nihongi,  we  must  first  note  that  the  Nihongi 
states  that  from  the  descent  of  Ninigi  at  Hiuga  to  the  first  year 
of  Prince  Senu's  eastward  advance,  1792,  470  years  elapsed.17 
On  this  account,  some18  argue  that  originally  Japan  had  her 
own  science  of  chronology.  But  as  there  has  been  found  no 
other  external  evidence  to  support  it,  little  attention  is  paid  by 
students  to  this  argument. 


15.  Hirth,  "The  Ancient  History  of  China,"  pp.  171-175. 

16.  Aston,  "Early  Japanese  History,"  pp.  47-48. 

17.  N.  p.  79. 

18.  Ariga,   "Nihon-Rekishi,"  Vol.   I,  p.  470. 


21 


On  the  contrary,  our  students  seem  disposed  to  give  much 
weight  to  Chinese  history  which  relates  that  "the  Was  (Japan) 
are  not  acquainted  with  the  New  Year  or  the  four  seasons,  but 
reckon  the  year  by  the  spring  cultivation  of  the  field,  and  by 
the  autumn  ingathering  of  the  crops."19  Thus  there  seems  little 
doubt  that  the  Japanese  of  early  times  were  not  acquainted  with 
any  systematic  calendar  until  the  official  introduction  of  the 
Korean  and  Chinese  Science  of  Chronology,  or,  at  least,  not 
before  the  first  importation  of  Chinese  letters.20 

The  Nihongi  tells  us  that  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  Em- 
peror Kimmei's  reign  (554  A.  D.),  a  scholar  learned  in  the 
calendar  came  by  the  request  of  the  Imperial  Court  to  Japan 
from  Pekche.21  And  again  "Winter,  loth  month  (the  Empress 
Suiko's  reign  602  A.  D.)  a  Pekche  priest  named  Kwal-leuk 
arrived  and  presented  by  way  of  tribute  books  of  calendar- 
making,  of  Astronomy,  and  of  Geography,  and  also  books  of 
the  art  of  invisibility  and  of  magic.  At  this  time  three  or  four 
pupils  were  selected  and  made  to  study  under  Kwal-leuk."22 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  these  statements  are  verified 
by  a  stone  monument  at  Dogo  of  lyo,  on  which  we  read  the 
inscription  that  it  was  erected  in  598  A.  D. 

With  regard  to  the  different  character  of  the  Chinese  and 
Korean  calendars  much  could  be  said.  Yet,  for  our  purpose 
it  may  suffice  to  say  that  a  systematic  calendar  has  been  in  use 
in  Japan  since  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century  A.  D. 

In  that  case,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  chronology  of  the 
Nihongi,  before  the  sixth  century,  cannot  be  accepted  by  any 
careful  students  without  a  reinvestigation.  Because  of  this 


19.  Shiseki-Shiuran,   Vol.   XX,   p.    19. 

20.  Aston,   "Early  Japanese  History,"  p.  20.     Chamberlain,   "Kojiki," 

p.  43. 

21.  N.  p.  333. 

22.  N.  pp.  375-376.    Aston,  Vol.  II,  pp.  126. 

22 


fact,  Professor  Naka  made  a  comparative  study  of  Japanese 
and  Korean  history,  and  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
dates  and  facts  in  the  Nihongi  which  are  said  to  have  occurred 
before  the  Emperor  Yuriaku's  reign  (457-479  A.  D.)  are  utterly 
out  of  harmony  with  those  recorded  in  the  Korean  history.  He 
further  points  out  that  this  inconsistency  is  largely  due  to  the 
chronological  inaccuracy  of  the  Nihongi.23 

According  to  the  Nihongi,  the  three  kingdoms  of  Korea 
were  conquered  by  the  Empress  Jingo  in  200  A.  D.24  But  no 
Korean  history  speaks  of  this  event,  which,  if  it  occurred,  cer- 
tainly must  have  been  a  great  event  to  Korea.  Still  more 
inconsistent  is  the  description  of  the  Nihongi  in  respect  to 
the  introduction  of  Chinese  letters  into  Japan. 

It  relates  that  "i5th  year,  Autumn,  8th  month,  6th  day  (284 
A.  D.)  The  King  of  Pekche  sent  A-chik-ki  with  two  quiet 
horses  as  tribute.  A-chik-ki  was  able  to  read  the  classics  (Chi- 
nese), and  so  the  Heir  Apparent,  Uji-no-waka-iratsuko,  made 
him  his  teacher.  Hereupon  the  Emperor  (Ojin)  inquired  of 
A-chik-ki,  saying: — 'Are  there  other  men  superior  to  thee?' 
He  answered  and  said: — There  is  Wang-in,  who  is  superior/ 
Then  Areada-wake  .  .  .  and  Kamunagi-wake  were  sent  to 
Pekche  to  summon  Wang-in. 

"Sixteenth  year,  spring,  2nd  month,  Wang-in  arrived,  and 
straightly  the  Heir  Apparent  took  him  as  teacher,  and  learned 
various  books  from  him."25 

And  yet,  we  learn  nothing  about  "this  from  any  Korean 
source.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  stated  in  a  Korean  history,  Tonk- 
kuk-thong-Kan,  that  "in  372  A.  D.  Kokuli  established  a  high 
school  where  pupils  were  instructed.  Three  years  later  (375 

23.  Shigaku-Zzashi,  Vol.  VIII. 

24.  N.  pp.  164-165. 

25.  N.  p.  118.    Aston,  Vol.  I. 

23 


A.  D.  Pekche  appoints  a  certain  Kohung  as  professor.  It 
was  not  until  now  that  Pekche  had  any  records.  This  country 
had  no  writing  previous  to  this  time."  Another  Korean  history, 
San-guk-Sa,  also  tells  us  that  from  346  to  375  A.  D.,  the  first 
written  records  were  begun  in  Pekche.26 

Whatever  credence  students  may  give  to  these  Korean  state- 
ments, the  fact  remains  that  accounts  in  Japanese  and  Korean 
history  continue  to  disagree  until  the  year  461  A.  D. 

In  461  A.  D.  we  see  for  the  first  time  the  chronological 
coincidence  in  both  histories.  "Summer,  4th  month  (461  A.  D.)/' 
says  the  Nihongi,  "Lord  Kasyuni  (i.  e.,  King  Kero)  of  Pekche, 
having  learned  by  rumor  that  Iketsu  Hime  (a  Korean  lady) 
had  been  put  to  death  by  burning,  held  council,  saying,  'The 
ancient  custom  of  sending  tribute  of  women  to  be  made  Uneme 
(Court  Mistress)  is  contrary  to  decorum,  and  is  injurious  to 
our  country's  reputation.  Henceforward  it  is  unmeet  that 
women  be  sent  as  tribute/  Accordingly,  he  intimated  to  his 
younger  brother,  Lord  Kun,  saying:  'Do  thou  go  to  Japan  and 
serve  the  Emperor.'  Lord  Kun  answered  and  said,  'My  Lord's 
commands  must  not  be  disobeyed.  .  .  .'  So  at  last  he  took 
his  leave  and  went  on  his  mission  to  the  Court  (Japanese)."*7 

This  description  is  confirmed  by  a  Korean  history,  Pekche 
Shinsen,  which  remarks  upon  the  same  event,  saying:  "In  the 
year  Kanoto-Ushi  (461  A.  D.)  King  Kero  sent  his  younger 
brother,  Konkishi,  to  Great  Wa  (Great  Japan)  to  wait  upon 
the  Tenno  (Emperor)  and  to  confirm  the  friendship  of  the 
previous  sovereigns."28 

From  this  time  the  dates  and  facts  in  the  Nihongi  are 
never  widely  divergent  from  those  of  Korean  records. 

26.  Aston,  "Early  Japanese  History,"  p.  46. 

27.  N.  p.  241.     Aston  Vol.   I,  p.  345. 

28.  N.  p.  242.     Aston  Vol.  I,  p.  346. 

24 


Another  important  point  which  students  must  bear  in  mind 
when  considering  the  chronology  of  Nihongi  is  that  the  reigns 
and  the  lives  of  the  Emperors  before  400  A.  D.  are  unnaturally 
long,  for  the  average  age  of  the  first  Seventeen  Emperors  from 
Jimmu  down  to  Richu  was  109  years,  and,  while,  for  the  first 
four  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  the  three  Korean  Kingdoms, 
Silla,  Kokuli,  and  Pekche,  had  16,  17  and  16  rulers,  respectively, 
in  Japan  only  seven  Emperors  reigned.29 

There  may  be  various  reasons  for  this  discrepancy,  yet 
that  the  Chinese  passage,  "They  (Japanese)  are  a  long-lived 
race,  and  persons  who  have  reached  100  years  are  very  com- 
mon/'30 had  an  effect  upon  the  compilers  of  the  Nihongi  is 
more  than  likely.  But  this  supposition  has  not  been  sufficiently 
verified  to  afford  us  an  adequate  explanation.  On  what  ground, 
then,  did  the  compilers  of  the  Nihongi  assign  the  year  660  B.  C. 
to  the  alleged  Coronation  of  the  Emperor  Jimmu  ? 

Professor  Naka  replies  that  one  of  the  Chinese  calendars  is 
based  upon  the  so-called  Sexagenary  cycle  system,  in  which 
sixty  years  form  a  smaller  cycle,  the  sixtieth  year  being  regarded 
by  the  Chinese  as  a  great  year. 

Twenty-one  of  such  cycles  form  a  larger  cycle  of  1,260 
years.  Without  doubt,  the  compilers  of  the  Nihongi  adopted 
this  system.  As  600  A.  D.  (the  Empress  Suiko's  reign)  was  the 
last  year  of  a  smaller  cycle,  they  reckoned  years  from  that  date 
backward  toward  antiquity  until  they  reached  the  year  660  B.  C., 
the  beginning  of  the  larger  cycle.  He  further  states  that  by 
this  calculation  Jimmu's  coronation  at  Yamato  may  be  said  to 
have  occurred  in  the  year  660  B.  C.31 

If  this  be  true,  we  are  confronted  by  the  fascinating  problem 
of  revising  the  chronology  of  the  Nihongi. 

29.  Aston,   "Early  Japanese   History,"   p.   44. 

30.  Shiseki-Shiuran,  Vol.   XX,  p.   19. 

31.  Shigakuzzashi,  Vol.  VIII. 

25 


As  stated  above,  the  Nihongi  is  written  in  pure  Chinese  style 
in  order  to  glorify  Japanese  national  history.  For  this  reason, 
the  stories  in  this  work  are  not  only  beautified  with  fine  and 
dignified  phrases  but  also  reflect  how  great  was  the  Chinese 
influence  upon  the  early  Japanese  writers.  The  following  para- 
graphs illustrate  the  mode  of  expression  in  the  Nihongi :  "Fourth 
year  (the  Emperor  Nintoku's  reign,  316  A.  D.),  Spring,  2nd 
month,  6th  day.  The  Emperor  addressed  his  ministers,  saying, 
'We  ascended  a  lofty  tower  and  looked  far  and  wide,  but  no 
smoke  arose  in  the  land.  From  this  we  gather  that  the  people 
are  poor,  and  that  in  the  houses  there  are  none  cooking  their 
rice.  We  have  heard  that  in  the  reigns  of  the  wise  sovereigns 
of  antiquity,  from  every  one  was  heard  of  the  sound  of  songs 
hymning  their  virtue,  and  in  every  house  a  ditty.  How  happy 
are  we.  But  now,  when  we  observe  the  people,  for  three 
years  past,  no  voice  of  eulogy  is  heard,  the  smoke  of  cooking  has 
become  rare  and  rare.  .  .  .' 

"Third  month,  2ist  day.  The  following  decree  was  issued: 
'From  this  time  forward,  for  the  space  of  three  years,  let  forced 
labor  be  entirely  abolished,  and  let  the  people  have  rest  from 
toil.  .  .  .' 

"Seventh  year,  summer,  4th  month,  1st  day.  The  emperor 
was  on  his  tower,  and,  looking  far  and  wide,  saw  smoke  arising 
plentifully.  On  this  day  he  addressed  the  Empress,  saying :  'We 
are  now  prosperous.  What  can  there  be  to  grieve  for?'  The 
Empress  answered  and  said:  'What  dost  thou  mean  by  pros- 
perity?' The  Emperor  said:  'It  is  doubtless  when  the  smoke  fills 
the  land,  and  the  people  freely  attain  to  wealth.'  The  Empress 
went  on  to  say:  'The  palace  enclosure  is  crumbling  down,  and 
there  are  no  means  of  repairing  it,  the  buildings  are  dilapidated 
so  that  the  coverlets  are  exposed.  Can  this  be  called  prosperity?' 
The  Emperor  said:  'When  Heaven  establishes  a  Prince,  it  is 
for  the  sake  of  the  people.  The  Prince  must  therefore  make  the 

26 


people  the  foundation.  For  this  reason  the  wise  sovereigns  of 
antiquity,  if  a  single  one  of  their  subjects  was  cold  and  starving, 
cast  the  responsibility  on  themselves.  Now  the  people's  poverty 
is  none  other  than  our  poverty;  the  people's  prosperity  is  none 
other  than  our  prosperity.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  the  people's 
being  prosperous  and  yet  the  Prince  in  poverty.'  "32 

Thus  the  spirit  of  early  Japan  is  ambiguously  portrayed  in 
a  foreign  tongue,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  some  students33 
insist  upon  placing  the  Kojiki,  or  "Records  of  Ancient  Matters," 
above  the  Nihongi  as  the  original  source  for  the  study  of  ancient 
Japanese  society. 

3.      THE  KOJIKI  AND  NIHONGI. 

The  preceding  paragraphs  reveal  to  us  that  both  the  Kojiki 
and  Nihongi  are  in  character  romantic  and  uncritical  and  that 
the  chronology  of  the  Nihongi  before  about  500  A.  D.  is  un- 
trustworthy. Because  of  these  facts,  some  authorities  attempt  to 
discredit  as  fiction  the  greater  part  of  both  writings,  especially 
that  relating  to  events  occurring  before  the  sixth  century  of  our 
era. 

Undoubtedly  the  accounts  of  events  which  took  place  before 
the  eastward  advance  of  Prince  Senu  (later  the  Emperor 
Jimmu)  are  legendary.  But  since  we  find  that  in  both  the  Kojiki 
and  Nihongi  there  is  no  break  between  the  fabulous  and  the  real, 
th,e  whole  story  deserves  careful  attention.  Arbitrarily  to  disre- 
gard any  part  of  these  stories  would  seem  to  endanger  an  accurate 
comprehension  of  prehistoric  times. 

The  Kojiki  devotes  about  one-half  of  its  volume  to  describ- 
ing events  occurring  before  the  Christian  era,  while  the  greater 
part  of  the  Nihongi  treats  in  detail  of  events  both  domestic  and 
foreign  which  took  place  after  that  time.  On  this  account,  it  is 


32.  N.  pp.  195-196.     Aston,  Vol.  I,  DO.  278-279. 

33.  Hirata-Zenshiu.    Vol.  1,  pp.  1-22. 

27 


the  Kojiki  which  contains  more  valuable  material  for  the  study 
of  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  state. 

Moreover,  the  Kojiki  speaks  in  the  native  tongue  of  the  early 
national  life  and  its  style  is  more  natural  than  that  of  the  Nihongi. 

But,  as  we  have  seen,  the  Nihongi  has  its  own  strong  points.  It 
cannot  be  said,  therefore,  that  the  one  is  more  authentic  than 
the  other.  Students  must  use  both  sources,  carefully  comparing 
them,  and  if  they  find  external  evidences  verifying  the  account 
in  either,  these  evidences  must  be  the  standards  by  which  the 
academic  value  of  the  story  is  determined. 

4.    SUPPLEMENTARY    MATERIALS. 

Besides  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi,  we  have  so  many  supple- 
mentary and  secondary  sources  for  our  study  that  a  mere  enumer- 
ation of  their  names  is  a  task  of  some  difficulty.  We  shall,  there- 
fore, mention  only  the  following  writings: 

1.  Kogoshui,  or  "Gleanings   from  Ancient  History,"  by  H. 
Imibe. 

2.  Seishiroku,  or  "Catalogue  of  Family  Names." 

3.  Kojiki-den,  or  "Commentary  on  the  Kojiki,"  by  Motoori. 

4.  Isho-Nihonden,  or  "Foreign   Notices    of  Japan,"  by    K. 
Matsushita. 

5.  Koshi-Tsu,  or  "Treatises  on  the  Ancient  History,"  by  Arai. 

6.  Koshi-Cho,   or   "Sources   of   the   Ancient   Histories,"   by 
Hirata. 

7.  Kiujiki,  or  "Chronicles  of  Old  Matters." 


CHAPTER  II. 

RACIAL  FACTORS. 

I.    The  Geographical  Features  of  Japan. 

Before  entering  upon  the  consideration  of  the  racial  factors, 
we  must  observe  briefly  the  geographical  features  of  Japan  in 
order  to  comprehend  its  connection  with  the  Asiatic  continent. 

According  to  the  opinion  of  some  of  our  geologists,1  Japan 
was  at  one  time  a  part  of  the  neighboring  continent,  and  some 
of  her  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin.  Many  evidences  have  been 
produced  by  the  Geological  Survey,  which  seem  to  prove  the 
soundness  of  this  contention.  Since,  however,  these  changes 
must  have  taken  place  long  before  the  dawn  of  Japanese  civiliza- 
tion, they  have  no  immediate  concern  for  the  present  study. 

The  Japan  of  today  (except  Chosen  or  Korea)  consists  of  a 
chain  of  narrow  islands  lying  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia, 
and  extending  from  latitude  21°  48'  N.  to  50°  56'  N.  and  from 
longitude  119°  20'  E.  to  156°  32'  E.  The  chief  islands,  named 
from  north  to  south,  are  Southern  Sakhalien,  Hokkaido  or  Yezo, 
Hondo  (the  main  island  of  Japan),  Shikoku  (near  Osaka), 
Kiushiu  (southwest  of  Hondo),  and  Formosa.  The  principal 
dependent  archipelagoes  are  the  Kurile  islands  (east  of  Hok- 
kaido), Iki-Tsushima  (between  Kiushiu  and  Korea),  Goto 
islands  (west  of  Nagasaki),  Ryukyu  islands  (between  Kiushiu 
and  Formosa)  Bonin  islands  (southeast  of  Ryukyu  islands),  and 
Pescadores  islands  (between  Formosa  and  southern  China).  Of 
these  Hokkaido,  Hondo,  Shikoku  and  Kiushiu  are  the  most  im- 
portant for  our  study.  The  shores  of  southern  Japan  are  washed 
by  the  warm  currents  known  as  the  Kuro-shiwo  which  come 


1.  Outlines  of  the  Geology  of  Japan,  pp.  84-85. 

29 


from  the  South  Seas,  while  the  coasts  of  northern  Japan  are 
swept  by  the  cold  Arctic  current.  Formosa  is  separated  from 
the  Philippines,  its  southern  neighbor,  by  Bashi  Channel,  and 
from  the  Chinese  coast  by  Formosa  Channel.  Korea  is  separated 
from  Japan  only  by  Broughton  Channel,  less  than  25  miles  in 
width.  Kamchatka  from  the  Kurile  islands  by  the  Kurile  Strait 
and  Soya  Strait  is  between  Saghalien  and  Hokkaido. 

Such  being  our  geographical  situation,  it  seems  possible  that 
whoever  the  primitive  inhabitants  were  they  had  from  early  times 
access  to  the  Asiatic  Continent  and  Polynesia,  probably  by  the 
following  sources: 

Two  in  the  North. 

1.  From  Hokkaido  via  the  Kurile  islands  to  Kamchatka. 

2.  From  Hokkaido  via  Soya  Strait  to  Saghalien  and  thence 
to  the  Amur  region  of  Manchuria. 

Four  in  the  South. 

1.  From  Kiushiu  via  Iki  and  Tsushima  to  Korea  and  thence 
to  China. 

2.  From  Izumo   (the  western  part  of  the  main  island)   to 
Korea  or,  by  the  aid  of  the  current,  to  southern  China  and  Poly- 
nesia. 

3.  From  Kiushiu  via  Goto  islands  to  southeastern  China. 

4.  From  Kiushiu  via  Ryukyn  islands,  Formosa,  and  the  Phil- 
ippines to  Malaysia  and  Polynesia. 

This  indicates  the  possibility  of  the  Japanese  being  a  mixed 
race. 

2.     The  Early  Population  of  Japan. 

Who  were  the  aborigines  of  the  Japanese  islands? 

Was  the  dominant  group  in  the  ancient  society  which  the 

30 


Nihongi  desigates  as  "JaPanese  proper"2  a  part  of  the  aborigines  ? 
If  not,  when  and  from  where  did  they  come? 

These  are  the  great  problems  which,  despite  the  diligent  inves- 
tigation of  our  students,  remain  unsolved. 

Considering  the  aborigines  of  Japan,  we  first  notice  in  the 
Kojiki  and  Nihongi  the  names  of  three  strange  people,  who,  if 
they  were  races  distinct  from  the  Japanese  proper,  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  islands.  They  are  Tsuchi- 
gumo,  or  "earth  spiders";  Kumaso,  or  "brave  bandits,"  and 
Yemishi,  or  "eastern  savages." 

One  passage  in  the  Kojiki  and  three  or  four  in  the  Nihongi 
describe  the  Tsuchi-gumo.  According  to  them,  they  were  pit 
dwellers  scattered  throughout  the  western  part  of  the  main  island. 
They  had  "short  bodies  and  long  arms  and  legs.  They  were  of 
the  same  class  as  the  pigmies."3  When  Prince  Senu  (later  Em- 
peror Jimmu)  was  about  to  establish  the  Yamato  Government, 
the  Tsuchi-gumo  offered  feeble  resistance  to  his  victorious  army. 
But  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Keiko  (the  twelfth 
Emperor)  that  they  were  completely  subjugated.  Strange  to 
say,  the  Chiefs  of  Tsuchi-gumo  had  Japanese  names,  some  of 
which  are  identical  with  those  of  Shinto  priests,4  and  they  also- 
seem  to  have  had  Japanese  followers.  For  this  reason,  it  can- 
not be  determined  whether  or  not  the  Tsuchi-gumo  were  different 
from  the  Japanese  proper  without  the  external  evidences  which 
we  shall  consider  later. 

The  first  important  reference  to  the  Kumaso  in  the  Japanese 
annals  is  made  in  the  account  of  the  Emperor  Keiko's  reign. 


2.  N.  p.  390. 

3.  N.  p.  90.     Aston,  pp.   129-130. 

4.  Hafuri. 

31 


The  Nihongi5  tells  us  that  in  82  A.  D.  the  Kumaso,  occupying 
Kiushiu,  especially  that  section  of  Hiuga,  Osumi,  and  Satsuma, 
rebelled  and  refused  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Yamato  Court.  There- 
upon, the  Emperor  Keiko  made  a  progress  to  Kiushiu  or  "Tsu- 
kushi"  to  pacify  the  rebels.  Many  underhanded  measures  were 
employed  to  conquer  the  Kumaso,  but  owing  largely  to  the  brav- 
ery of  the  Kumaso  the  Imperial  troops  were  frequently  baffled. 
After  eight  years'  battle  the  Emperor  was  able  to  subjugate  them, 
one  tribe  after  another.  In  97  A.  D.  the  Kumaso  again  rebelled, 
and  the  Errtperor  commanded  the  celebrated  Prince  Yamato-take 
to  proceed  to  Kiushiu  with  a  large  force.  This  expedition  re- 
sulted in  the  great  victory  of  the  Prince.  But  as  years  passed, 
the  Kumaso  rebelled  again  and  again,  thus  making  the  western 
frontier  a  scene  of  bloodshed  for  many  years. 

There  was  a  third  expedition  under  the  Emperor  Chuai  (192- 
200  A.  D.),  after  which  the  Kumaso  must  have  remained  quiet 
for  centuries,  because  henceforth  no  mention  of  them  is  made 
in  either  the  Kojiki  or  the  Nihongi. 

Instead,  our  annals  speak  of  the  Hayato,  or  "Falcon  men," 
who  lived  in  the  east  southern  part  of  Kiushiu,  and  are  said  to 
have  descended  from  Hosuseri,  one  of  the  Japanese  tribal  chiefs. 

In  a  remote  age  before  the  time  of  Jimmu,  according  to  the 
Nihongi,  Hohodemi,  one  of  the  Imperial  ancestors,  engaged  in 
war  against  his  elder  brother  Hosuseri.  This  contest  resulted  in 
Hosuseri's  defeat,  and  the  vanquished  chief's  life  was  spared 
only  on  condition  that  he  and  his  followers  and  their  descend- 
ants should  serve  the  family  of  the  victor.  These  descendants 
were  known  as  the  Hayato,  and  as  a  result  of  the  early  agree- 
ment some  of  them  were  from  time  to  time  taken  to  the  Palace 
to  serve  instead  of  watch-dogs.6  We  also  see  in  another  chapter 

5.  N.  p.  135. 

6.  N.  pp.  73-74.     K.  p.  59. 


of  the  Nihongi  that  upon  the  death  of  Emperor  Yuryaku  (457- 
479  A.  D.)  "the  Hayato  lamented  night  and  day  beside  the 
Misasagi  (tomb)  and  refused  the  food  offered  to  them,  until  at 
the  end  of  seven  days  they  died."7 

Whether  the  Hayato  were  descended  from  Hosuseri  or  not, 
many  students  express  the  belief  that  they  were  identical  with 
the  Kumaso. 

But  who  were  these  Kumaso  or  Hayato?  Did  they  belong 
to  the  same  racial  family  as  the  Japanese  proper? 

Our  annals  contain  no  description  of  the  physical  charac- 
teristics of  these  people.  So  we  must  leave  the  answer  to  these 
questions  to  archaeologists  and  anthropologists. 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  Yemishi  or  "eastern 
savages,"  the  third  element  in  the  primitive  population  men- 
tioned in  our  annals. 

The  earliest  reference  to  the  Yemishi  in  the  Nihongi  is  made 
in  the  account  of  Prince  Senu's  Yamato  conquest.  (Yamato  is 
located  in  Central  Japan.) 

The  Prince,  who  was  uncertain  about  the  disposition  of  a 
band  of  inhabitants,  ordered  his  general,  Michi,  to  construct  a 
spacious  hut  and  invite  the  eighty  doubtful  characters  to  a  ban- 
quet. In  the  midst  of  the  entertainment,  the  host  gave  a  signal 
to  his  warriors,  upon  which  followed  the  wholesale  slaughter  of 
the  guests. 

In  commemoration  of  this  victory,  the  Prince  composed  two 
short  poems,  one  of  which  runs  as  follows : 


7.  N.  p.  262.     Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  375. 

33 


"Though  folks  say 

That  one  Yemishi 

Is  a  match  for  one  hundred  men, 

They  do  not  so  much  as  resist."8 

The  second  reference  to  the  Yemishi  in  the  Nihongi  and  the 
first  in  the  Kojiki  are  made  in  the  chapter  referring  to  the  Em- 
peror Keiko. 

The  Nihongi  relates  that  in  95  A.  D.  the  Emperor  Keiko 
commanded  Takenouchi-no-Sukune  to  explore  the  northeastern 
section  of  the  main  island.  After  two  years,  Takenouchi  returned 
to  the  Yamato  Court  and  reported,  saying,  "In  the  Eastern  wilds 
there  is  country  called  Hitakami.  The  people  of  this  country, 
both  men  and  women  tie  up  their  hair  in  the  form  of  a  mallet, 
and  tattoo  their  bodies.  They  are  of  fierce  temper,  and  their 
general  name  is  Yemishi.  Moreover,  the  land  is  wide  and  fertile. 
We  should  attack  it  and  take  it."9  Thirteen  years  later  there 
was  a  widespread  rebellion  in  the  eastern  wilds,  and  the  frontier 
was  in  a  state  of  turmoil.  Thereupon  the  Emperor  ordered  ^his 
son,  Prince  Yamato-take,  the  Conqueror  of  the  Kumaso,  to 
organize  an  expedition  against  the  eastern  provinces. 

On  this  occasion,  the  Emperor  gave  an  address  in  which  he 
characterized  the  racial  features  of  the  Yemishi:  "We  hear 
that  the  eastern  savages  are  of  violent  disposition,  and  are  much 
given  to  oppression.  Their  hamlets  have  no  chiefs,  their  villages 
no  leaders,  each  is  greedy  of  territory,  and  they  plunder  one 
another.  .  .  .  Amongst  these  eastern  savages  the  Yemishi 
are  the  most  powerful,  their  men  and  women  live  together  pro- 
miscuously, there  is  no  distinction  of  father  and  child.  In  winter 
they  dwell  in  holes ;  in  summer  they  live  in  nests.  Their  cloth- 
ing consists  of  furs,  and  they  drink  blood.  Brothers  are  sus- 
picious of  one  another.  In  ascending  mountains  they  are  like 


8.  N.  p.  86.     Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.   124. 

9.  N.  pp.  141-142.    Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  200. 

34 


flying  birds;  in  going  through  the  grass  they  are  like  fleet  quad- 
rupeds. When  they  receive  a  favor,  they  forget  it,  but  if  an 
injury  is  done  them  they  never  fail  to  revenge  it.  Therefore, 
they  keep  arrows  in  their  top-knots  and  carry  swords  within 
their  clothing.  Sometimes  they  draw  together  their  fellows  and 
make  inroads  on  the  frontier.  At  other  times  they  take  the 
opportunity  of  the  harvest  to  plunder  the  people.  If  attacked, 
they  conceal  themselves  in  the  herbage,  if  pursued,  they  flee  into 
the  mountains.  Therefore,  ever  since  antiquity  they  have  not 
been  steeped  in  the  kingly  civilizing  influences.  .  .  .  Truly 
Heaven  commiserating  our  want  of  intelligence  and  the  dis- 
turbed condition  of  the  country  has  ordained  that  Thou 
(Yamato-take)  shouldst  order  the  Heavenly  institution,  and  save 
the  monarchy  from  extinction.  Moreover,  the  Empire  is  Thy 
Empire,  and  this  dignity  is  Thy  dignity.  I  adjure  Thee  to  exer- 
cise profound  policy  and  far-reaching  foresight  in  searching  out 
iniquity  and  watching  against  crises. 

"Admonish  with  majesty,  comfort  with  kindness,  avoid  hav- 
ing recourse  to  arms,  and  thou  wilt  naturally  inspire  loyal  obe- 
dience. So  by  cunning  words  thou  mayst  moderate  the  violent 
Deities  (local  chiefs)  and  by  a  display  of  armed  force  sweep 
away  malignant  demons."10 

After  this,  Prince  Yamato-take  sailed  along  the  coast  to 
Suruga,  where  he  landed.  The  local  chieftain  of  Suruga  deceived 
the  Prince,  and  plotted  to  destroy  his  party.  Escaping  from  this 
difficulty,  however,  Yamato-take  succeeded  in  making  a  counter- 
attack. Step  by  step  he  pushed  on,  and  finally  penetrated  into 
Hitakami11,  the  stronghold  of  the  Yemishi,  taking  many  brigand 
chiefs  as  prisoners.  He  then  proceeded  to  Sunano,  dispatching 
Otomo,  one  of  his  generals,  to  explore  Koshi.  Both  parties  met 
again  at  Mino  and  marched  to  Owari.  Upon  hearing  about  the 

10.  N.  pp.  144-145.    Aston,  Vol.  I,  pp.  203-204. 

11.  Hitakami  seems  to  have  been  identical  with  present  Hitatsu. 

35 


Ohmi  brigands,  Yamato-take  advanced  against  Ohmi,  but  suf- 
fered from  the  difficult  nature  of  the  ground,  and,  becomng  seri- 
ously ill,  he  ultimately  retired  to  Ise,  where,  in  the  year  1 1 1  A.  D., 
his  remarkable  career  came  to  an  end  when  he  was  only  thirty 
years  of  age. 

When  the  sad  news  of  Yamato-take's  death  reached  Yamato, 
the  Emperor  lamented  night  and  day,  exclaiming,  "Oh,  our  son, 
Prince  Wo-usu  (Yamato-take).  Formerly  when  the  Kumaso 
revolted  he  was  still  a  boy.  But  for  a  long  time  he  bore  the  labor 
of  campaigning.  Afterwards  he  was  constantly  at  our  side, 
supplying  our  deficiencies.  Then  when  the  troubles  with  the  east- 
ern savages  arose,  there  was  no  one  else  whom  we  could  send  to 
smite  them.  So,  in  spite  of  our  affection  for  him,  we  sent  him 
into  the  country  of  the  enemy.  No  day  passed  that  we  did  not 
think  of  him.  Therefore,  morning  and  evening  we  longingly 
awaited  the  day  of  his  return.  Oh  !  what  a  calamity !  Oh !  what 
a  crime !  While  we  least  expected  it,  we  suddenly  lost  our  child. 
Henceforth  with  whom  to  help  us  shall  we  manage  the  vast 
institution?"12  The  Yemishi  prisoners  were  taken  as  an  offering 
to  the  shrine  of  Ise.  They  proved  so  noisy,  however,  that  the 
priestess  of  Ise,  Yamato-hime,  transferred  them  to  Yamato.  The 
Yamato  Court  dividing  them  assigned  them  to  the  five  provinces, 
namely,  Harima,  Sanuki,  lyo,  Aki  and  Awa.  In  after  ages  these 
Yemishi  prisoners  constituted  the  Saeki  clan,  and  performed  a 
military  function  at  the  Yamato  Court. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  after  this  the  Yemishi  of  the 
northeastern  provinces  remained  quiet.  But  as  time  went  on, 
and  while  the  Yamato  government  was  expending  its  energy 
upon  internal  troubles,  the  eastern  frontier  again  became  the 
scene  of  rebellion.  The  Yemishi  frequently  stormed  the  Imperial 
garrisons.  One  expedition  against  them  was  followed  by  another, 
and  many  castles  were  built  on  the  northeastern  front  in  order 

12.  N.  p.  149.    Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  210. 

36 


to  check  the  enemy's  westward  advance.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  when  General  Sakanoye 
Tamuramaro  pierced  all  the  enemy's  lines,  that  general  peace 
began  to  prevail  in  northern  Japan. 

Though  the  extracts  from  the  Japanese  annals  relating  to 
the  Yemishi  are  brief,  still  they  are  sufficient  to  enable  us  to 
draw  two  conclusions.  First,  that  long  before  the  inauguration  of 
the  Yamato  government,  the  Yemishi  inhabited  central  and  north- 
ern Japan.  Second,  that  the  Yemishi  were  a  race  distinct  from 
the  Japanese  proper. 

We  find  further  proof  for  this  latter  conclusion  in  another 
passage  from  the  Nihongi  which  reads,  "Autumn,  7th  month,  3rd 
day  (659  A.  D.)  The  Envoys  were  sent  to  the  land  of  Thang 
(China).  They  took  with  them  a  Yemishi  man  and  woman  of 
Michinoku  (northern  Japan)  to  show  to  the  Thang  Emperor. 
The  Emperor  inquired  of  them,  saying:  'In  what  quarter  is  the 
land  of  these  Yemishi  situated?"  The  Envoys  answered  respect- 
fully, saying:  'It  lies  to  the  northeast/  The  Emperor  inquired 
of  them,  saying:  'How  many  tribes  of  Yemishi  are  there?' 
The  Envoys  answered  respectfully,  saying:  'There  are  three 
kinds,  the  most  distant  are  called  Tsugaru,  the  next  Ara- Yemishi 
(rough)  and  the  nearest  Nigi- Yemishi  (quiet).  These  now  here 
are  Nigi-Yemishi.  They  bring  tribute  yearly  to  our  Country's 
Court.'  The  Emperor  inquired  of  them,  saying:  'In  their 
country  are  there  the  five  kinds  of  grain?'  The  Envoys  an- 
swered respectfully,  saying:  'No,  they  sustain  life  by  eating 
flesh.'  The  Emperor  inquired  of  them,  saying:  'Have  they 
houses  in  their  country?'  The  Envoys  answered  respectfully, 
saying :  'No,  they  have  their  dwellings  under  trees,  in  the  recesses 
of  the  mountains.'  The  Emperor  went  on  to  say:  'When  we 
look  at  the  unusual  bodily  appearance  of  these  Yemishi,  it  is 
strange  in  the  extreme.'  "13 


13.  N.  pp.  464-465.    Aston,  Vol.  11,  pp.  261-262. 

37 


Fortunately,  at  present,  we  find  the  remnants  of  the  Yemishi 
in  the  modern  Ainu  whose  present  numbers  hardly  exceed 
twenty  thousands.  They  live  in  the  extreme  north,  as  the  result, 
it  is  said,  of  their  defeat  in  the  struggle  for  self-preservation. 

Thus  we  have  seen  the  early  inhabitants  of  Japan  as  they  are 
described  in  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi.  Since,  however,  there  is  no 
way  of  knowing  how  far  we  can  rely  upon  these  accounts,  the 
problem  of  the  racial  sources  of  the  Japanese  requires  further 
study  from  many  other  standpoints. 


Turning  now  from  the  consideration  of  written  records  to 
external  evidences,  we  see  first  of  all  the  ancient  remains 
unearthed  by  archaeological  and  anthropological  research. 

Up  to  the  present  day,  there  have  been  found  throughout 
Japan  a  number  of  shell-heaps  (Kaizuka)  varying  in  size  from 
insignificant  dimensions  to  five  hundred  square  yards.  They 
are  most  numerous  in  the  regions  of  Kwanto  (around  present 
Tokio)  and  Tohoku  (the  northeastern  provinces  of  the  main 
island).  It  is  assumed  that  originally  these  shell-heaps  stood 
at  the  seaside,  but,  owing  to  the  gradual  silting  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  they  have  been  separated  miles  from  the  coast.14  This 
process  has  probably  required  an  interval  of  from  five  to  ten 
thousand  years.  Whether  this  view  is  geologically  sound  or  not, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  shell-heaps  were  observed  from 
an  early  period,  for  the  Hitachi  Fudoki,  or  "Topography  of 
Hitachi,"  compiled  about  713  A.  D.,  speaks  of  them  as  exist- 
ing at  that  time.15 

Students  who  believe  that  the  Tsuchi-gumo  or  "earth-spiders" 
were  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Japan,  attribute  the  formation 
of  these  shell-heaps  to  the  Koropokguru  (underground  dwellers, 


14.  Yagi,  Nihon-Kokogaku,  pp.   19-20. 

15.  Gunsho-ruijiu,  p.  1121. 

38 


so  called  by  the  Ainu),  the  modern  representatives  of  whom  are 
said  to  be  the  Eskimo.  The  supposed  relationship  between  the 
Koropokguru  and  the  modern  Eskimo  is  based  upon  the  presence 
of  eye  guards  on  the  images  of  the  primitive  sites  and  harpoons 
which  have  been  excavated,  similar  to  those  used  at  the  present 
time.16  According  to  the  opinion  of  these  students,  both  the 
Koropokguru  and  Tsuchi-gumo  were  pit  dwellers  and  pigmies, 
and  were  therefore  identical.  They  had  immigrated  to  Japan  long 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Yemishi  or  "Modern  Ainu."  When 
these  races  struggled  for  their  existence,  the  newcomers  won  the 
day.  The  main  population  of  Koropokguru  naturally  retreated 
to  the  north,  and  the  Tsuchi-gumo  whom  the  Japanese  Prince 
Senu  encountered  in  the  Yamato  province  were  a  remnant  of 
this  race  remaining  in  Central  Japan.  The  Koropokguru  lived 
on  shell-fish,  and  this  is  the  reason  for  the  formation  of  shell- 
heaps.17  To  strengthen  this  theory  the  advocates  produce  the 
relics  of  pit-dwellers  in  Hokkaido  and  Itorop,  together  with  the 
following  Ainu  legend :  "In  very  ancient  times,  a  race  of  people 
who  dwelt  in  pits  lived  among  us.  They  were  so  very  tiny  that 
ten  of  them  could  easily  take  shelter  beneath  one  burdock  leaf. 
When  they  went  to  catch  herrings,  they  used  to  make  boats  by 
sewing  the  leaves  together,  and  always  fished  with  a  hook.  If 
a  single  herring  was  caught  it  took  all  the  strength  of  the  men  of 
five  boats  or  ten  sometimes  to  hold  it  and  drag  it  ashore,  while 
whole  crowds  were  required  to  kill  it  with  their  clubs  and  spears. 
Yet,  strange  to  say,  these  divine  little  men  used  even  to  kill  great 
whales.  Surely  these  pit-dwellers  were  Gods."18  This  theory 
has  been  refuted,  however,  by  those  who,  after  closer  examina- 
tion of  these  supposed  evidences,  have  concluded  that  the  forma- 
tion of  shell-heaps  is  due  to  cannibalism  practised  among  the 


16.  Tsuboi,   "Jinruigaku-Zzashi,   Feb.    1903." 

17.  Tsuboi,    "Tinruigaku-Zzashi,    April,    1897.      Kida    "Rekishi-Chiri, 
March  1907." 

18.  Batchelor,  "The  Ainu  and  their  Folk-lore,"  p.  13. 

Batchelor,  C  f.  transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  Vol. 
X,  pp.  208-209. 

39 


ancient  Yemishi  or  "Ainu,"  and  that,  so  far  as  the  chief  islands 
of  Japan  are  concerned,  there  has  been  found  no  trace  of  pig- 
mies. According  to  this  view,  the  Tsuchi-gumo  were  Japanese 
outlaws  who  perhaps  lived  in  muro  or  caves,  for  their  chiefs 
not  only  had  Japanese  names  but  are  described  in  a  passage  of 
the  Nihongi  as  of  "mighty  frame  and  having  numerous  follow- 
ers,"19 while  in  the  Kojiki  they  are  mentioned  as  brave  cave 
men.20  Although  in  another  passage  the  Nihongi  speaks  of  the 
Tsuchi-gumo  as  pigmies  and  pit-dwellers,  it  does  not  necessarily 
follow  that  they  were  identical  with  the  Koro-pok-guru. 

The  supporters  of  this  theory  further  hold  that  the  pigmy 
idea  is  discredited  not  only  by  a  careful  study  of  the  Japanese 
annals  but  also  by  the  fact  that  pit-dwelling  was  prevalent 
among  men  of  ancient  time.21 

Moreover,  they  say  that  the  pits  of  Hokkaido  and  Itorop 
show  no  marks  of  antiquity,  their  orderly  arrangement  suggest- 
ing a  military  encampment  rather  than  the  abode  of  savages.  On 
excavation  they  yielded  only  unglazed  pottery  and  a  Japanese 
dirk,  and  no  relics  of  pit-dwelling  pigmies  could  be  found.  Re- 
garding the  Ainu  legend,  these  students  contend  that  it  cannot  be 
believed,  owing  to  the  absence  of  tangible  evidences  in  the  chief 
islands,  which  could  in  any  way  contribute  to  its  credibility.  Even 
though  it  might  contain  some  truth,  it  must  have  concerned  events 
which  occurred  outside  of  the  main  island. 

They  further  point  to  the  fact  that  whereas  numerous  place- 
names  in  Hondo  (the  main  island)  have  been  identified  as  Ainu 
words,  none  has  been  traced  to  any  alien  tongue  which  might 
have  been  spoken  by  pre- Yemishi  immigrants. 

This  theory  not  only  repudiates  the  Koropokguru  idea  but 
it  goes  further  and  advances  the  hypothesis  that  the  earliest 

19.  N,  p.  136. 

20.  K.  p.  68. 

21.  C.  f.  Nakada,  "Rekishi-Chiri,  March,  1907. 

40 


inhabitants  of  Japan  were  the  Yemishi  or  "Ainu."  In  examining 
these  two  theories  we  find  that  as  far  as  negative  evidences  are 
concerned,  the  Yemish  argument  is  much  sounder  than  that  sup- 
porting the  Koro-pok-guru  and  Tsuchi-gumo  idea.  But  upon 
what  positive  grounds  does  the  Yemishi  theory  stand? 

Archaeological  research  reveals  to  us  the  existence  of  two 
distinct  cultures  in  Japan,  together  with  traces  of  a  third.  One 
culture  is  represented  at  the  present  day  by  numerous  relics 
imbedded  in  the  soil,  or  in  shell-heaps.  It  is  characterized  by 
the  total  absence  of  metal  and  the  presence  of  pottery  not  turned 
on  a  wheel,  indicating  neolithic  culture.  The  remains  of  the 
other  are  found  in  sepulchral  chambers  and  caves.  Here  we  find 
iron  implements.  The  third  is  a  bronze  culture. 

Geographically,  sites  of  a  neolithic  culture  have  been  found 
throughout  the  country,  whereas  those  of  bronze  and  iron  are, 
as  we  shall  see,  confined  to  central  and  western  Japan. 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  the  neolithic  relics  should  be 
associated  with  the  aborigines  of  Japan,  the  others  being  regarded 
as  the  products  of  more  advanced  peoples.  It  is  upon  this  culture 
that  the  Yemishi  or  Ainu  theory  is  based. 

The  sites  of  neolithic  culture  in  Japan  are  so  numerous  that 
more  than  four  thousand  have  already  been  found.22  In  Hondo 
(the  main  island)  these  sites  occur  more  frequently  in  the  north- 
ern than  in  the  southern  half.  For,  if  we  draw  a  line  from  Ise 
to  Ohmi,  we  find  that  in  the  southern  section  only  one-sixth  of 
the  sites  found  in  the  north  have  been  discovered.  In  Shikoku 
and  Kiushiu  there  is  about  the  same  percentage  of  these  sites 
as  in  the  section  of  Hondo  south  of  the  Ise-Ohmi  line.  There 
are  comparatively  few  in  Hokkaido,  but  this  is  probably  due  to 


22.  A    list    published    by    the    Imperial    University    in    1900,    records 
about  3,500  sites. 

41 


the  fact  that  this  section  is  still  largely  covered  by  forest  and 
unreclaimed  land. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  most  refined  and  finished 
pottery  has  been  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  region  of  the 
Kwanto  provinces  (around  present  Tokio)  and  its  superior  qual- 
ity becomes  more  noticeable  as  we  advance  toward  the  north  of 
the  main  island.  The  pottery  in  the  south  is  cruder  than  that 
in  Kwanto,  which  probably  indicates  an  earlier  origin. 

A  very  small  amount  of  pottery  has  been  found  in  Hokkaido. 
Some  of  it  is  coarse,  but  the  occasional  presence  of  wooden  and 
iron  utensils  appears  to  signify  a  degeneration  of  the  art  in  the 
far  north  rather  than  a  beginning. 

The  relics  of  the  neolithic  culture,  which  have  been  excavated 
from  the  shell-heaps,  or  soil,  vary  in  kind.  Yet  for  our  purpose 
it  will  suffice  simply  to  enumerate  them  as  follows :  Shell-heaps, 
hooks,  arrow-heads,  arrow-necks,  needles,  bone-presser  for  flak- 
ing stone,  bow-tips,  wooden  handles,  mallets  or  hammers,  axes, 
chisels,  saws,  knives,  spear-heads,  fishing-weights,  harpoons,  mor- 
tars or  mills,  sling  stones,  buttons,  swords,  sinkers,  gaffs,  scrap- 
pers, hoes,  whetstones,  images,  masks,  bowls,  plates,  caps,  boats, 
cooking-pans,  bottles,  jars,  shell,  stag  horns,  animal  bones,  teeth 
and  bones  of  man  and  human  skulls  and  skeletons,  etc.23  The 
implements  and  utensils  are  made  from  stone,  bone,  horn,  bam- 
boo, wood  and  clay.  It  must  be  noted  that  those  obtained  from 
the  shell-heaps  are  of  greater  archaeological  value  than  th* 
others,  for  the  shell-heaps  are  regarded  as  a  pure  and  genuine 
relic  of  the  primitive  culture  in  Japan. 

According  to  Mr.  Yagi,  the  shell-heaps  are  most  numerous 
in  the  Kwanto,  but  decrease  toward  the  far  north  and  south.24 


23.  C.    f.   Yagi-Nichon-Kokogaku,"   pp.    1-75. 

24.  Yagi,    Nihon-Kokogaku,    pp.   41-42. 

42 


Even  as  far  south  as  Satsuma,  however,  some  shell-heaps  have 
been  found. 

We  may  fairly  say  from  the  foregoing  evidences  that  even 
though  the  geographical  distribution  of  its  relics  varies,  the  neo- 
lithic culture  of  Japan  was  uniform  throughout  the  entire  country. 

It  is  this  fact  that  induced  the  supporters  of  the  Yemishi 
theory  to  work  out  the  hypothesis  that  the  aborigines  of  Japan 
consisted  of  one  race,  and  that  this  race  was  the  Yemishi. 

They  further  hold  that,  since  the  skulls  and  human  bones 
excavated  from  the  shell-heaps  have  been  identified  with  those 
of  the  Ainu,25  these  shell-heaps  are  unquestionably  of  Yemishi 
or  Ainu  origin. 

It  is  contended  by  some  who  oppose  the  Yemishi  theory  that 
the  modern  Ainu  do  not  use  pit-dwellings,  or  stone  implements, 
nor  do  they  make  pottery.  Moreover  the  patterns  on  their  wooden 
articles  differ  from  those  on  the  pottery  and  stone  implements 
of  the  neolithic  age.26  But  this  has  been  refuted  by  students  of 
the  Ainu  culture,  who  maintain  that  pit-dwellings  have  been 
used  by  the  Ainu  of  Saghalien  and  the  Kuriles  and  that  in  Hok- 
kaido and  Kuriles  pottery  and  stone  implements  have  been  found. 
They  also  contend  that  in  ancient  times  there  certainly  might 
have  been  racial  sub-divisions  among  the  Yemishi  and  that  the 
modern  Ainu,  mere  decadent  representatives  of  the  Yemishi, 
cannot  be  expected  to  retain  all  the  marks  of  their  ancient  cul- 
ture. 

So  far  all  evidences  seem  to  favor  the  Yemishi  or  Ainu  theory. 
But  before  any  conclusion  can  be  reached  we  must  consider  the 
race  mentioned  in  the  Japanese  annals  as  the  Kumaso,  or  "brave 


25.  Koganei,  "Beitrage  zur  Physichen  Anthropologie  der  Aino,"  Band 
2,  No.  2.     "Mittheilungen  aus  der  Medicinischen  Facultat  der  Kaiserlich 
Japanischen  Universitat." 

26.  Munro,  "Primitive  Culture  in  Japan,"  p.   184. 

43 


bandits,"  for,  whoever  they  might  have  been,  the  fact  remains 
that  they  are  spoken  of  in  these  writings  as  the  primitive  inhab- 
itants of  southern  Japan.  As  we  have  seen,  nothing  is  recorded 
in  either  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi  regarding  the  physical  features 
of  the  Kumaso.  Mr.  Numata  advances  a  theory  that  the  Kumaso 
originally  belonged  to  the  Sow  race  of  Borneo  and  that  they 
found  their  way  to  Japan  on  the  Kuro-shiwo,  or  "Black  tide."27 
He  attempts  to  prove  this  by  showing  that  the  customs  of  both 
races  are  similar.  The  theory  is  plausible,  but,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  external  evidences  in  Japan  which  could  verify  this  argument, 
its  validity  must  for  the  present  remain  a  matter  of  question. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  argued  by  the  supporters  of  the 
Yemishi  theory  that  the  Kumaso  belonged  to  the  same  racial 
family  with  the  Yemishi  or  Ainu,  for,  not  only  many  place  names 
in  Kiushiu  are  identified  as  Ainu  words,  but  the  meanings  of 
Kuma  (bear)  and  So  (brave)  signify  Ainu  origin.28 

Whether  this  opinion  be  sound  or  not,  no  relics  of  the  Kumaso 
as  a  race  distinct  from  the  Yemishi  have  as  yet  been  found. 
Moreover,  we  learn  from  a  Chinese  source29  that  the  early  inhab- 
itants of  southern  Japan  seem  to  be  a  race  allied  to  the  Yemishi. 
These  facts  seem  to  give  much  weight  to  the  Yemishi  theory. 

Why,  then,  and  how  did  they,  the  northern  and  southern 
Yemishi,  become  separated? 

The  most  credible  explanation  may  be  that  in  remote  ages 
the  Yemishi  came  from  south  and  populated  the  Philippines, 
Formosa,  and  Japan.  In  Japan  they  met  the  Japanese  immi- 
grants who  probably  came  from  Korea,  landing  at  neighboring 
ports.  Both  races  struggled  for  supremacy.  But  the  Japanese, 
being  more  highly  civilized,  easily  separated  the  Yemishi  popula- 


27.  Numata,    Nihon-jinshu-Shinron. 

28.  Motoori-Zenshiu,  Vol.  II,  pp.  240-241.     Kokushi-Soranko,  Vol.  II, 
pp.    19-21.     Omori,   Kokushi-gaisetsu,  pp.   226-229. 

29.  Hau  Han  Su. 

44 


tion,  pushing  one  part  to  the  south  and  the  other  to  the  north. 
The  southern  Yemishi  (Kumaso)  were  soon  subjugated,  but 
those  in  the  north  were  left  unconquered  for  many  years. 

Thus  the  Yemishi  theory  seems  to  be  verified  from  many 
standpoints.  There  is,  of  course,  a  possibility  that  further 
research  in  this  field  may  change  the  present  theory  and  attribute 
the  neolithic  culture  of  Japan  to  some  other  races,  for  the  geo- 
graphical situation  of  Japan  would  make  it  easy  for  people  to 
come  to  the  country  from  every  direction.  But,  at  present,  we 
share  the  opinion,  so  admirably  expressed  by  Dr.  Munro,  that 
"there  are  no  anthropological  reasons  for  maintaining  that  the 
Ainu  (Yemishi)  were  not  formerly  prevalent  throughout 
Japan."36 

We  have  already  noted  that  besides  the  neolithic  culture  of 
Yemishi  archaeological  research  of  the  pre-historic  Japan  has 
revealed  the  existence  of  an  iron  culture  which  is  confined  prin- 
cipally to  the  section  south  of  the  Ise-Ohmi  line,  the  center  of 
this  culture  being  Yamato.  The  fact  that  for  many  years 
Yamato  was  the  center  from  which  ancient  Japan  was  ruled, 
makes  it  clear  that  the  iron  culture  should  be  regarded  as  belong- 
ing to  the  Japanese. 

But  where  did  these  Japanese  come  from? 

In  their  "chapters  on  the  legendary  period,  both  the  Kojiki 
and  Nihongi  speak  of  the  creation  of  the  Japanese  islands  by  a 
Kami31  couple,  Izanagi  and  Izanami,  who  undertook  this  task 
in  obedience  to  a  decree  of  the  producing  Kami,32  at  Takamano- 
hara,  or  "Plain  of  High  Heaven." 

The  annals  also  tell  us  that  all  the  Japanese  came  down  from 
Takamanohara,  but  all  confined  their  settlements  to  southern  and 

30.  Munro,  "Primitive  Culture  in  Japan,"  p.  198. 

31.  K.  p.  10.    N.  pp.  1-8.    Kami  means  superior. 

32.  K.  p.   10.     N.  pp.  5-6. 

45 


western  Japan,  principally  in  Izumo,  Tsukushi  and  Yamato.  We 
read  that  generally  speaking,  these  Japanese  had  a  tribal  organiza- 
tion, and  that  their  religion  Shinto  was  a  combination  of  ancestor 
and  nature  worship,  which  has  been  the  political  religion  of  Japan 
down  to  the  present  time. 

Mention  is  made  of  the  use  of  iron,  spades,  axes,  swords, 
spears,  metal  armour,  shields,  bows,  arrows,  and  other  arms  as 
well  as  pottery,  gold,  silver,  mirrors  and  gems.  Grains  and 
marine  animals  together  with  textiles  of  such  as  mulberry  and 
hemp  seem  to  have  provided  for  their  daily  necessities.  Carriages 
and  ships  were  in  use  and  it  is  interesting  to  find  that  the  crocodile 
is  mentioned  in  the  Japanese  legend. 

This  legend  refers  to  Yorunokuni  or  "the  country  of  night," 
Aounabara,  or  "the  sea  plain,"  Nenokuni,  or  "Hades,"  and 
Tokoyonokuni,  or  "the  eternal  land,"  to  which  places  the  Japanese 
seem  to  have  also  descended  from  Takamanohara. 

The  sea  plain  has  been  identified,  as  we  shall  see,  with  a 
neighboring  province  in  Korea,  but  the  rest  of  them,  as  well  as 
Takamanohara,  have  remained  unidentified. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Chinese  records  tell  us  that  "the  Japa- 
nese are  descended  from  the  Chinese  Prince  Tai  Peh  of  Wu,"» 
and  that  "a  colony  from  China  under  Su-she  settled  in  Japan  in 
219  B.  C.,34  and  again  that  the  northern  and  southern  Was 
(Japanese)  are  subject  to  the  kingdom  of  Yen."35  Yen  was  a 
kingdom  of  northern  China  which  had  an  independent  exist- 
ence from  1 1 22  to  265  B.  C. 

Referring  to  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  pre-historic 
Japan  the  Chinese  records  give  us  the  following  description: 


33.  Shiseki-Shiuran,  Vol.  XX,  p.  28. 

34.  Shiseki-Shiuran,  Vol.  XX,  p.  18. 

35.  Shiseki-Shiuran,  Vol.  XX,  p.  7. 

46 


"Wa  (Japan)  lies  nearly  east  of  Kwai  Ki  (in  Chekiang), 
and  therefore  the  laws  and  customs  are  similar.  The  soil  is 
favorable  for  the  production  of  grain  and  hemp,  and  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  silk  mulberry.  They  understand  the  art  of 
weaving.  The  country  produces  white  pearls  and  green  jade. 
There  is  cinnabar  in  the  mountains.  The  climate  is  mild,  and 
vegetables  can  be  grown  both  in  winter  and  summer.  There 
are  no  oxen,  horses,  tigers,  leopards,  or  magpies.  Their  soldiers 
have  spears  and  shields,  wooden  bows  and  bamboo  arrows,  which 
sometimes  are  tipped  with  bone.  The  men  all  tattoo  their  faces 
and  adorn  their  bodies  with  designs.  Differences  of  rank  are 
indicated  by  the  position  and  size  of  the  patterns.  The  men's 
clothing  is  fastened  breadth-wise  and  consists  of  one  piece  of 
cloth.  The  women  tie  their  hair  in  a  bow,  and  their  clothing 
resembles  our  gowns  of  one  thickness  of  cloth.  It  is  put  on  by 
being  passed  over  the  head.  They  use  pink  and  scarlet  to  smear 
their  bodies  with  as  rice-powder  is  used  in  China.  They  have 
stockaded  forts  and  houses.  Father  and  mother,  elder  and  younger 
brothers  and  sisters  live  separately,  but  at  meetings  there  is  no 
distinction  on  account  of  sex.  They  take  their  food  with  their 
hands,  but  have  bamboo  trays  and  wooden  trenches  to  place 
it  on.  It  is  their  general  custom  to  go  bare-footed.  Respect  is 
shown  by  squatting  down.  They  are  much  given  to  strong  drink. 
They  are  a  long  lived  race,  and  persons  who  have  reached  100 
are  very  common.  The  women  are  more  numerous  than  the 
men.  ^ 

"All  men  of  high  rank  have  four  or  five  wives ;  others  two  or 
three.  The  women  are  faithful  and  not  jealous.  There  is  no 
theft  and  litigation  is  unfrequent.  The  wives  and  children  of 
those  who  break  the  law  are  confiscated  and  for  grave  crimes 
the  offender's  family  is  extirpated.  Mourning  lasts  for  some 
ten  days  only,  during  which  time  the  members  of  the  family 
weep  and  lament,  whilst  their  friends  come  singing,  dancing  and 
making  music. 

47 


"They  practice  divination  by  burning  bones,  and  by  that 
means  they  ascertain  good  and  luck,  and  whether  or  not  to 
undertake  journeys  and  voyages.  They  appoint  a  man  whom 
they  style  the  'mourning  keeper.'  He  is  not  allowed  to  comb 
his  hair,  to  wash,  to  eat  meat,  or  to  approach  women.  When 
they  are  fortunate,  they  make  him  valuable  presents;  but  if  fall 
ill,  or  meet  with  disaster,  they  set  it  down  to  the  mourning- 
keeper's  failure  to  observe  his  vows,  and  together  they  put  him 
to  death."36 

If  these  Chinese  accounts  are  reliable,  the  riddle  contained 
in  the  Japanese  legend  can  be  easily  solved.  But,  since  these 
accounts  are  challenged  by  many  students  who  believe  that  they 
refer  only  to  the  Kumaso,37  the  question  of  their  validity  must 
for  the  present  remain  unanswered.  We  must  therefore  turn 
to  the  archaeologists  and  anthropologists  for  further  evidences 
of  the  probable  origin  of  the  Japanese. 

Up  to  this  time  archaeological  research  has  shown  that  most 
of  the  relics  of  Japanese  culture  have  been  found  in  tombs. 
These  tombs  vary  in  form  and  consist  chiefly  of  mounds,  caves 
and  dolmens. 

From  their  construction  and  magnitude  the  mound  and  cave 
appear  to  have  been  the  tombs  of  the  gentry  or  lower  officials, 
while  the  dolmen  might  have  been  the  sepulchre  of  higher  per- 
sonages. The  mound  and  cave  are  found  also  in  the  Yemishi 
culture,  but  the  dolmen  is  exclusively  associated  with  the  Japa- 
nese. It  is  on  this  account  that  the  dolmen  is  regarded  by 
archaeologists  as  the  most  characteristic  of  Japanese  tombs.  As 
far  as  we  can  learn  from  the  Japanese  annals,38  the  building  of 
dolmen  ceased  somewhere  between  600  and  700  A.  D.,  but  there 

36.  Shiseki-Shuiran,  p.  10. 

37.  C.   f.  Yoshida,   "Kodai-hen,"  p.  266. 

38.  Dainihonshi.     Also  see,  Yagi,   "Koko-Binran,"  pp.   77-78. 

48 


is  no  record  of  the  date  when  this  style  of  structure  was  intro- 
duced. It  is  said  that  the  dolmens  also  existed  in  China  from 
very  early  times,  but  they  were  not  built  later  than  the  ninth 
century  B.  C.39  In  Korea  we  find  the  dolmens  with  megalithic 
roofs.  These  dolmens  may  have  been  brought  from  China  to 
Korea  and  thence  to  Japan,  but  there  is  no  date  to  be  found  in 
the  Korean  annals. 

Mr.  Munro,40  estimating  the  evolution  of  dolmen  from  the 
most  recent  ones  in  northern  Japan  to  those  built  at  an  earlier 
date  in  western  Japan,  has  concluded  that  this  form  of  tomb 
began  to  be  used  in  about  500  B.  C.  Mr.  Gowland  places  the 
date  about  three  hundred  years  later.41 

A  porcelain  coffin  similar  to  those  used  in  Asia  minor  about 
three  thousand  years  ago,  has  been  found  in  Mimasaka  (near 
Izumo).  If  it  can  be  proved  that  this  coffin  was  used  by  the 
Japanese,  it  would  appear  that  they  have  come  to  the  country  at 
a  very  early  date,  perhaps  bringing  the  knowledge  of  dolmen 
building  with  them  or  acquiring  it  later  from  China  through 
Korea.  If  there  is  any  truth  in  this  conjecture,  it  may  give 
some  weight  to  Mr.  Munro's  opinion. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  these  dolmens  is  exceed- 
ingly interesting,  for  it  enables  us  to  ascertain  archaeological 
facts  verifying  the  movements  of  the  early  Japanese  described 
in  the  legend. 

The  sites  of  these  dolmens  occur  most  frequently  in  Yamato 
(present  Kinai),  then  in  Izumo  (present  Sanindo)  especially, 
Iwami,  Izumo,  Hoki,  Inaba,  and  Tamba.  They  are  also  found 
in  Sanyodo,  Shikodu  and  north  and  east  Kiushiu.  Dr.  Tsubois' 
investigation  points  to  the  fact  that  there  is  no  dolmen  in  the 


39.  Brinkley,  "A  History  of  the  Japanese  People,"  p.  50. 

40.  Munro,  "Primitive  Culture  in  Jspan,"  p.  173. 

41.  Gowland,   "The  Dolmens  and  burial  mounds  in  Japan."     Arch- 
aeologia,  Vol.  LV. 

49 


southern  section  of  Kiushiu.42  In  northern  Japan  we  find  a  large 
group  of  dolmens  in  Kwanto  and  comparatively  few  in  Iwaki, 
but  the  northern  sites  belong  to  the  later  period. 

Among  the  dolmens  there  is  one  class  deserving  special  men- 
tion. This  is  a  double  mound  which,  however,  never  contains 
more  than  one  dolmen.  We  know  that  these  mounds  were  the 
burial  places  of  the  ancient  Emperors  and  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  they  were  also  used  as  the  tombs  of  powerful  chiefs, 
for  the  Nihongi43  tells  us  that  the  Great  Minister  Soga-no- 
Yemishi  erected  one  during  his  lifetime.  They  have  been  found 
in  Yamato  (Kinai)  north,  central  and  southeast  Kiushiu,  Izumo, 
Harima,  and  Kwanto  (especially  Kotsuke).  Comparing  these 
archaeological  facts  with  the  Japanese  legend,  which  speaks  of 
the  existence  of  three  centres  among  the  early  Japanese,  the 
oldest  being  Izumo,  we  find  that  the  written  accounts  are  borne 
out  by  the  scientific  discoveries.  Does  this  conformity  not  indi- 
cate that  the  legend  of  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi  is  based  upon 
something  more  substantial  than  mere  surmises  of  the  8th  century 
writers  ? 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  presence  of  dolmens  in  both  Izumo 
and  Korea  throws  some  light  upon  the  probable  direction  from 
which  the  early  Japanese  came,  even  though  it  is  of  no  assistance 
in  helping  us  to  determine  to  what  race  they  belonged. 

Among  the  relics  discovered  in  the  Japanese  tombs,  we  find 
iron  swords,  daggers,  arrow-heads,  spear-heads,  halberd-heads, 
armour,  helmets,  stirrups,  bridle-bits,  ornamental  trappings  for 
horses,  axes,  hoes,  spades,  chains,  rings,  buckles,  nails,  and 
handles,  bronze,  or  copper  arrow-heads,  spear-heads,  helmets, 
arm  and  leg  guards,  shoes,  belts,  mirrors,  rings,  bracelets,  and 
jingle-bells  (suzu),  silver  or  gold  rings,  chains,  and  pendants, 


42.  Kume,  Kodai-shi,  p.  243. 

43.  N.  p.  37. 


curved  jewelry  (magatama)  and  other  gems,  stone  coffins,  por- 
celain coffin,  terra  cotta  or  clay  images,  (haniwa),  burial  jars, 
sacred  utensils  (iwaibe),  wooden  implements  and  miscellaneous 
pottery. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  although  the  Japanese  tombs 
have  yielded  bronze  mirrors,  bowls,  jingle-bells,  and  stone 
weapons  and  implements  made  to  imitate  those  of  metals,  the 
salient  feature  of  Japanese  culture  is  iron.  The  swords  are  all 
of  iron  and  some  have  at  the  end  of  the  tang,  a  disc  bearing 
a  perforated  design  of  two  dragons  holding  a  ball  which  suggest 
Chinese  origin  or  imitation  of  Chinese  workmanship. 

Others  have  pommels  surmounted  by  a  bulb  set  at  an  angle 
to  the  tang.  These  swords  resemble  those  used  by  the  Turan- 
ians. Still  others  have  been  found  in  Kwanto,  which  are  said 
to  be  similar  to  those  of  western  Asiatic  origin.  The  continental 
origin  of  these  various  kinds  of  swords  is  unquestionable,  but 
whether  those  found  in  the  Japanese  tombs  were  made  in  Japan 
or  not,  is  a  matter  which  cannot  be  proved  conclusively.  We 
learn  from  a  Chinese  source  that  "Sin  Han,  one  of  the  three 
ancient  Korean  kingdoms,  produced  iron,  and  that  Wa  (Japan) 
and  Ma  Han,  the  most  western  of  these  Korean  kingdoms, 
traded  in  it  and  used  it  as  currency.**  Moreover,  in  the  Japanese 
annals,  the  sword  of  Susanoo  is  called  Orochi-no-Kara-Sabi,45 
Kara,  being  a  Japanese  name  for  Korea  and  it  further  tells  us 
that  some  swords  were  made  in  Japan.  By  this  we  may  con- 
clude that  the  early  Japanese  knew  something  of  the  art  of  sword 
making  and  that  they  also  may  have  traded  with  Korea.  May 
not  this  also  suggest  Japanese  immigration  through  Korea? 

Practically  all  the  dolmens  contain  round  bronze  mirrors. 
It  is  said  that  the  art  of  bronze  work  was  known  in  China  twenty 

44.  Toiden,  or  "Chronicles  of  the  Eastern  Barbarians,"  (Hau  Han  Su) 

45.  N.  p.  37. 

51 


centuries  prior  to  the  Christian  era.  One  chapter  of  the  Japanese 
annals  tells  us  that  a  bronze  mirror  was  made  by  Ishikoritome 
in  a  remote  age.46  In  other  parts,  we  find  references  to  mirrors 
having  been  sent  from  Korea  to  Japan  as  tribute.  A  Chinese 
account  mentions  that  in  242  A.  D.  the  Chinese  Emperor  sent 
100  sheets  of  bronze  mirror  as  a  present  to  the  Japanese  Queen.47 
Copper  was  not  mined  in  Japan  until  after  the  introduction  of 
Buddhism.  Consequently  the  early  Japanese  must  either  have 
obtained  these  bronze  mirrors  from  Korea  or  brought  the  art 
of  making  them  with  them  in  which  case  they  would  have  been 
obliged  to  get  materials  from  Korea. 

This  suggests  the  existence  of  close  intercourse  between 
Japan  and  Korea. 

The  dolmens  have  also  yielded  magatama  or  "curved  jewels" 
and  kudatama,  or  "cylindrical  jewels."  Minerals  for  these  jewels 
are  jade,  nephrite,  chrysoprase,  agate,  amber,  jasper,  quartz, 
glass  and  others.  The  first  three  of  these  minerals,  however, 
have  never  been  found  in  Japan.  It  is  probable  that  they  were 
introduced  from  Korea  in  the  form  of  tribute  as  they  were 
regarded  as  precious  treasures.  If  this  be  true,  we  have  another 
indication  of  the  close  contact  of  Japan  with  Korea.*8 

Other  important  spoils  of  the  Japanese  tombs  are  Iwaibe  or 
"sacred  utensils"  and  Haniwa  or  "Terracotta  and  clay  images." 

The  Iwaibe  are  the  most  characteristic  of  Japanese  pottery. 
They  are  of  great  hardness,  having  metallic  rings  which  are 
sometimes  used  for  handles  and  sometimes  for  ornaments.  Their 
decorations  are  exceedingly  simple  and  restrained,  sometimes 
showing  imitations  of  textiles. 


46.  K.  p.  26.     N.  p.  29. 

47.  Shiseki-Shiuran,  p.   16. 

48.  C.   f.  "Kagami-to-Tsurugi-to-Tama,"  by  K.  Takahashi. 

52 


In  nearly  every  case  the  vessels  appear  to  have  been  moulded 
on  the  wheel  and  they  are  interspersed  with  the  figures  of  small 
jars,  horses,  deer,  wild  boars,  dogs,  birds,  tortoises,  and  human 
beings. 

The  Iwaibe  seem  to  have  been  made  for  funerals  or  other 
ceremonies,  for  their  colors  are  subdued,  varying  from  dark 
brown  to  light  gray. 

Although  some  of  the  Iwaibe  have  no  resemblance  to  those 
of  Korea  and  China,  yet  speaking  generally,  we  can  find  the 
counterpart  of  most  of  them  in  northern  Korea. 

The  Haniwa,  or  "Terracotta  and  clay  images,"  have  been 
found  around  the  dolmens.  They  consist  of  cylinders  sur- 
mounted by  figures  or  heads  of  animals  and  human  beings.  We 
learn  from  the  Nihongi  that  "in  the  year  2  B.  C.  Prince  Yamato 
died  and  was  buried.  Thereupon  his  personal  attendants  were 
assembled  and  were  all  buried  alive  upright  in  the  precinct  of 
the  Misasagi  (the  Imperial  Burial  place).  For  several  days 
they  died  not,  but  wept  and  wailed  day  and  night.  At  last  they 
died  and  rotted.  Dogs  and  crows  gathered  and  ate  them.  The 
Emperor  (Suinin)  hearing  the  sound  of  their  weeping  and  wail- 
ing, was  grieved  in  heart,  and  commanded  his  high  officers 
saying:  'It  is  very  painful  thing  to  force  those  whom  one  has 
loved  in  life  to  follow  him  in  death.  Though  it  be  an  ancient 
custom,  why  follow  it,  if  it  is  bad?  From  this  time  forward 
take  counsel  so  as  to  put  a  stop  to  the  following  of  the  dead.' 
In  the  third  year  A.  D.  the  Empress  died.  Sometime  before 
the  burial,  the  Emperor  commanded  his  ministers  saying,  'We 
have  already  recognized  that  the  practice  of  following  the  dead 
is  not  good.  What  should  now  be  done  in  performing  this  burial  ? 
Thereupon,  Nomi-no-Sukune  came  forward  and  said,  'It  is 
not  good  to  bury  living  men  upright  at  the  tumulus  of  a  prince. 
How  can  such  a  practice  be  handed  down  to  posterity?  I  beg 

53 


leave  propose  an  expedient  which  I  will  submit  to  Your  Majesty.' 
So  he  sent  messengers  to  summon  up  from  the  land  of  Izumo 
a  hundred  men  of  the  clay  worker's  Be  (Be  means  clan  or 
corporation).  He  himself  directed  the  men  of  the  Clay  Worker's 
Be  to  take  clay  and  form  therewith  shapes  of  men,  horses,  and 
various  objects  which  he  presented  to  the  Emperor.  .  .  ,"49 
This  indicates  the  ancient  Japanese  practice  of  human  sacrifice 
for  the  service  of  the  dead,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  as 
Dr.  Tylor  remarks,  this  custom  was  "one  of  the  most  wide- 
spread, distinct  and  intelligible  rites  of  animistic  religion,"50  and 
was  practiced  from  time  immemorial  by  the  Chinese,  the  Manchu 
Tartars,  and  many  other  nations  of  northeastern  Asia.  In  China 
a  device  to  substitute  images  for  human  beings  seems  to  have 
been  introduced  as  early  as  the  7th  Century  B.  C.  It  is  more 
than  likely  that  Japan  owed  this  new  idea  of  substitution  to 
China,  but  it  must  have  come  through  Korea,  for  as  the  Nihongi 
states51  the  Haniwa  workers  were  Izumo  people  who  undoubtedly 
were  in  close  contact  with  the  Korean  peninsula  from  the  earliest 
date. 

It  must  be  noted  that  from  the  most  remote  times  a  sword, 
mirror  and  magatama  have  been  the  regalia  of  Japan.52  If  we 
can  assume  that  these  three  relics  together  with  the  Iwaibe  and 
Haniwa  were  inseparably  associated  with  Korea,  may  we  not 
hope  to  be  lead  to  a  possible  solution  of  this  vexed  question, 
the  origin  of  the  Japanese  people? 

According  to  the  Nihongi,53  Susanoo,  one  of  the  Japanese 
Chiefs  and  an  important  figure  in  the  legend,  accompanied  by 
his  son  Itakeru  went  to  Silla  in  Korea  where  he  lived  for  some 
time  in  Soshi-mori  (Ox-head  Mountain).  His  Japanese  pos- 

49.  N.  pp.  126-127.     Aston,  Vol.  I,  pp.  178-181. 

50.  Tylor,   "Primitive    Culture,"   p.   458. 

51.  N.  p.  127. 

52.  Sanshu-no-Jingi. 

53.  N.  p.  37. 

54 


thumous  title  is  Gozu-Tenno.  It  is  said  that  the  Japanese  term 
of  Gozu  (ox-head)  corresponds  to  a  Korean  word  Soshi  (ox- 
head).  Consequently,  Gozu-Tenno  indicates  that  Susanoo  was 
the  ruler  of  Ox-head  mountain  in  Korea.  Another  account  in 
the  Nihongi54  tells  us  that  Susanoo  brought  gold  and  silver  from 
Korea  to  Japan  while  his  son,  Itakeru,  introduced  seeds  of  trees. 
Itakeru  was  afterwards  deified  in  Japan,  for  we  learn  from  the 
Yengi-shiki  or  "regulations  of  the  Yengi,"  that  there  are  six 
shrines  in  Izumo  called  Kara-Kuni  Itate  Jinja,  or  "Shrine  of 
Itakeru  of  Korea." 

The  Izumo  Fiidoki,  or  "topography  of  Izumo,"  remarks  that 
Omitsu,  one  of  Susanoo' s  sons,  imported  cotton  stuffs  from 
Silla  to  Japan,  unloading  them  at  Cape  Kitsuki  in  Izumo. 

Moreover,  both  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi  speak  in  their  legen- 
dary chapter,  of  the  marriages  of  Hohodemi  and  his  son  Fukiaeji 
(Prince  Senu's  father)  to  daughters  of  Watatsumi  or  "Kami  of 
sea."  We  further  learn  from  the  Kojiki  that  "Prince  Mikenu 
(Prince  Senu's  elder  brother)  crossed  over  to  the  Eternal  Land. 
Prince  Inahi  (another  of  Prince  Senu's  elder  brothers)  went  into 
the  sea  plain,  it  being  his  deceased  mother's  land."55  The  Seishi- 
Roku  or  "the  Catalogue  of  family  names,"  mentions  that  Prince 
Inahi  was  ancestor  of  Silla  dynasty.  Since  Prince  Inahi  was 
the  son  of  Watatsumi's  daughter,  it  is  natural  to  assume  that 
the  sea-plain  is  identical  with  Silla  in  Korea.  This  belief  is 
not  only  expressed  by  a  learned  historiographer  Otsuai,56  but 
it  is  shared  by  many  archaeologists.  Furthermore  it  is  asserted 
by  some  archaeologists  that  in  northern  Korea  there  have  been 
found  iron  swords,  copper  spear-heads,  and  arrow-heads,  and 
glass  gems  similar  to  those  used  by  the  early  Japanese. 

54.  N.  p.  38. 

55.  K.  p.  61.     Chamberlain,   p.    129. 

56.  Otsuai,   "Teikoku-Kinenshian." 

55 


Taking  all  these  facts  and  indications  into  consideration,  we 
may  fairly  conclude  that  the  Japanese  people  came  from  Korea 
and  peopled  western  Japan.  The  probable  date  of  their  first 
immigration  is  about  500  B.  C.  or  earlier.  This  is  based  upon 
Mr.  Munro's  calculation  regarding  the  date  of  the  introduction 
of  dolmens  into  Japan,  which  he  places  at  500  B.  C.,57  if  the 
Japanese  people  brought  these  dolmens  with  them  they  probably 
arrived  about  this  time.  But  they  may  have  come  earlier  and 
learned  the  art  of  dolmen  building  from  China. 

Who  were  the  early  Japanese?  And  where  did  they  come 
from  before  immigrating  to  Korea? 

At  present  there  are  two  theories  attempting  to  answer  these 
questions. 

One  supports  the  southern  origin  of  the  Japanese.  The  other 
holds  that  they  came  from  the  north. 

Generally  speaking,  the  advocates  of  the  southern  theory  set 
forth  the  following  arguments: — 

1.  The  early  Japanese  resemble  the  present  inhabitants  of 
the  South  Sea  islands  in  the  following  respects:    They  orna- 
mented their  bodies  and  blacked  their  teeth;  they  used  the  same 
kinds  of  swords,  bows,  and  shields;  they  were  skillful  in  the 
manipulation  of   canoes  and   in  making  bamboo  articles;   they 
lived  sometimes  in  huts,  they  had  paternal  organizations;  they 
used  masks  for  religious  services;  they  were  fond  of  dancing 
with   accompaniment   of   singing  and  hand-clapping;   and   they 
dressed  their  hair  in  a  similar  fashion. 

2.  The  Japanese  term  Kami  or  "superior,"  is  used  also  in 
Formosa  and  Malay  with  the  same  meaning. 

3.  Jade  which  is  one  of  the  minerals  for  magatama,  or  "curved 
jewels"  is  produced  in  Cochin  China. 


57.  Munro,  p.  173. 

56 


4.  Crocodile  which  is  mentioned  in  the  Japanese  legend  came 
from  the  South. 

5.  The  use  of  comb  is  of  southern  origin. 

6.  The  placing  of  a  bronze  mirror  in  a  shrine  is  of  southern 
origin. 

7.  The  eating  and  cultivating  of  rice  is  of  southern  origin. 

8.  The  members  of  the  Imperial  family  and  the  other  noble 
families  in  Japan  are  generally  of  the  Sutsuma  type  which  is 
regarded  as  the  modern  representative  of  the  Kumaso  or  Hayato. 

9.  The  above  reasons  are  verified  by  Chinese  records.58 

Dr.  Kume  argues  that  the  cradle  of  the  Japanese  was  some- 
where in  India,  whence  they  moved  eastward  to  Indo-China, 
southern  China,  Korea  and  then  Japan.  He  especially  empha- 
sises that  the  Shinto  cult  is  of  southern  origin.59 

Another  interesting  and  plausible  statement  is  made  by  Mr. 
Murdoch  which  reads:  "The  southern  invaders,  known  at  first 
as  Kumaso  and  later  on  as  Hayato,  probably  arrived  in  southern 
Kiushiu  long  before  the  establishment  of  the  Izumo  state.  Of 
these  invaders,  evidently  of  sea-faring  proclivities,  a  branch 
passed  into  south-western  Korea,  which  according  to  Mr.  Hul- 
bert's  hypothesis,  was  peopled  from  the  south  and  not  from 
the  north.  Those  settled  in  Kiushiu  came  into  conflict  with  the 
Ainu  (Yemishi)  a  few  of  whom  they  may  have  driven  to  take 
refuge  in  the  Luchu  islands,  while  the  others  were  exterminated 
or  thrown  back  into  the  main  island. 

Meanwhile  the  Izumo  state  was  founded  by  immigrants  of 
Chinese  extraction  whose  ancestors  had  settled  among  the  Korean 
Kumaso,  and  dominated  them  by  their  superior  culture,  but  from 


58.  Kume,   "Nihon-Kodaishi,"   pp.   60-61. 

59.  Kume,  "Nihon-Kodaishi,"  p.  57. 

57 


the  paucity  of  their  numbers  had  been  driven  to  acquire  the 
"Korean-Kumaso"  language.  Ultimately  a  branch  of  the  Kiushiu- 
Kumaso  came  into  contact  with  this  Izumo  state,  or  rather  with 
its  outlying  dependencies  and  either  conquered  them,  or  came 
to  terms  and  gradually  amalgamated  with  this  continental 
people,  their  superiors  in  culture,  but  their  inferiors  in  war  and 
in  the  prosaic  work-a-day  task  of  administration,  and  in  real 
practical  ability  generally.  The  combination  of  this  branch  of 
the  Kumaso  and  the  Izumo  men  proved  irresistible;  they  pushed 
their  conquests  eastward  along  shores  of  the  Inland  Sea,  and 
ultimately  established  a  strong  central  state  in  Yamato,  at  the 
expense  of  the  aboriginal  Ainu,  who  may  already  have  found 
themselves  hard  pressed  by  the  impact  of  the  Izumo  people 
from  the  north-west.60 

The  supporters  of  the  northern  theory  contend: 

1.  Although  the  modern  Japanese  are  a  mixed  race,  it  is 
discernible  that  in  the  Japanese  upper  classes  who  are  regarded 
as  descendants  of  the  early  Japanese,  the  Manchu-Korean  type 
prevails.     The  Manchu-Korean  type  predominates  in  northern 
China  and  in  Korea  and  is   characteristic  of  Yakut,   Bashkir, 
Kirghig,   Nigurs,   Urbeks,   Turkomanns,   Tartars   and  Tunguse, 
who  are  members  of  the  Uralo-Altaic  race.61 

2.  At  present  there  are  two  languages  in  Japan,  Japanese 
and  Ainu,  which  have  remained  independent  tongues   in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  many  Japanese  bear  unmistakable  signs  of  Ainu 
blood.    Japan  owes  much  to  the  civilization  of  China,  but  there 
is  no  strong  connection    between    the    Japanese    and    Chinese 
languages.     In  like  manner,  the  Japanese  language  is  entirely 
unrelated  to  those  spoken  by  the  Malays,  the  South  Sea  islanders 
and  Eskimos.  There  is,  however,  a  close  affinity  between  Japanese 


60.  Murdoch,  "History  of  Japan,"  Vol.  I,  pp.  51-52. 

61.  Baelz,  "An  article  in  the  Kaikoku-Gojunenshi,"  Vol.  II,  pp.  983-996. 

58 


and  languages  of  Korea,  Luchu,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Persia, 
Turkey,  Hungary,  and  Finland.62 

3.  Iron  swords,  spear-heads,  arrow-heads,  and  gems  similar 
to  those  used  by  the  ancient  Japanese  have  been  found  in  the 
northern  border  of  Korea,  which  was  peopled  by  the  Tunguse. 

4.  A  porcelain  coffin  which  was  recovered  in  western  Japan 
indicates  the  northern  origin  of  Japanese  for  porcelain  coffins 
were  in  use  in  Asia  minor  about  3000  years  ago. 

5.  Chrysoprase,  one  of  the  minerals  for  magatama  was  pro- 
duced in  Tibet  and  in  the  region  of  Lake  Baikal. 

6.  The  ancient  Japanese  did  not  tattoo  their  bodies. 

7.  The  ancient  Japanese  had  white  skin.     This  differentiates 
them  from  the  Malay. 

8.  The  ancient  Japanese  had  an  iron  culture,  whereas  there 
is  in  Malay  none  similar  to  it. 

9.  The  use  of  Sakaki  or  "Eurya  Ochnacea,"  in  the  Shinto 
rites  is  of  Korean  origin. 

10.  Gold  and  silver  which  are  mentioned  in  the  Japanese  legend 
were  produced  in  Korea. 

The  advocates  of  the  northern  theory  therefore  hold  that 
the  Japanese  originally  lived  in  western  Asia,  whence  they  came 
through  the  interior  of  Asia  to  Manchuria  and  Korea,  thence  to 
Izumo,  conquering  the  aboriginal  Yemishi  of  western  and 
southern  Japan,  and  finally  extending  their  sway  to  the  central 
part  of  the  main  island.63  Mr.  Munro,  advocating  the  northern 
origin  of  Japanese  with  some  slight  variation,  remarks:  "The 


62.  Nakamura,  "Nihon-Kaibiakushi,"  pp.  1-55.    Kanazawa,  "Nichikan- 
Dogokeiron."     Cf.    articles   on   this    subject   by   Chamberlain,   Aston   and 
others  in  transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan. 

63.  Nakamura,  Nihon-Kaibyakushi,  pp.  1-56. 

59 


Yamato  leaders  if  we  may  judge  by  the  terracotta  figures  which 
have  been  left,  were  not  pure  Mongolians.  Many  of  these  figures 
exhibit  a  distinctly  Caucasian  appearance  and  the  aristocratic 
type  of  Japanese  preserves  these  features  to  this  day.  The 
beau  ideal  of  the  artists  and  poets  of  Japan  indicates  a  proto- 
type of  Iranian  or  other  Semitic  affinity.  That  whiteness  of 
skin  was  a  desideratum  is  evident  from  marked  allusions  to  it 
in  the  ancient  writings.  It  is  probable  that  the  military  aris- 
tocracy of  Semitic  (Assyrian?)  origin  were  followed  by  a 
Mongolian  rank  and  file  and  that  modification  took  place  to  some 
extent  before  arrival  in  Japan.  But  the  Semitic  leaven,  though 
outcropping  among  all  classes  according  to  Mendel's  induction, 
could  but  partially  affect  the  mass.  It  is  conceivable  therefore, 
that  the  Mongolian  element  in  Japan  was  an  imported  and  not 
an  original  stock."64 

Geographically  Japan  is  accessable  not  only  to  the  Asiatic 
Continent  but  to  Malaysia  and  Polynesia,  and  naturally,  from 
a  comparatively  early  period,  she  must  have  invited  people  from 
all  directions  as  it  is  affirmed  by  the  annals  and  variety  of 
countenances  among  the  modern  Japanese.  This  fact  causes 
great  difficulty  when  we  endeavor  to  ascertain  who  the  original 
Japanese  were.  If  the  advocates  of  the  southern  theory  insist 
upon  their  hypothesis,  they  will  find  nothing  to  prove  con- 
clusively that  they  are  wrong.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
supporters  of  the  northern  theory.  No  one  really  knows  who 
the  original  Japanese  were,  but  it  seems  an  indisputable  fact 
that  they  came  from  Korea.  Nevertheless  in  comparing  these 
two  theories,  one  is  struck  with  the  facts  that  the  northern 
theory  is  based  upon  more  reliable  evidences  of  archaeological 
and  anthropological  research  than  the  southern  theory  and  that 
the  latter  is  too  faithful  in  interpreting  the  legendary  chapter 
of  the  Japanese  annals,  whereas  the  former  seeks  external  evi- 


64.  Munro,  pp.  195-196. 

60 


dences  regardless  of  whether  they  conform  to  the  legend  or  not. 

It  is  on  this  account  that  for  the  present,  many  students  incline 
to  believe  the  northern  origin  of  the  Japanese  people. 

If  we  accept  the  northern  theory  as  the  probable  explanation 
of  the  origin  of  the  Japanese,  the  question  may  be  asked  where 
was  the  Takamanohara  described  in  the  legend  as  the  cradle 
of  the  Japanese  people? 

Dr.  Kume,  an  advocate  of  the  southern  theory,  thinks  that 
it  was  Ise.65  Some  supporters  of  the  northern  theory  consider 
that  it  was  Yamato.66  Korea  and  Shikoku  are  also  suggested. 

But  as  we  shall  see  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  there  are  reasons 
to  believe  that  the  Takamanohara  episode  was  created  by  ancient 
Shinto  priests,  whereas  we  have  no  records  nor  external  evi- 
dences which  could  verify  its  existence.  Let  it  suffice  here  to 
say  that  the  identity  of  Takamanohara  must  be  subjected  to 
further  investigation. 

Before  we  leave  this  chapter,  one  more  question  remains  to 
be  considered;  namely  the  bronze  culture. 

The  sites  of  this  culture  occur  for  the  most  part  in  the 
northern  half  of  Kiushiu  and  in  south  of  the  Ise-Ohmi  line,  the 
chief  relics  being  the  swords,  daggers,  halberds,  arrow-heads  and 
bells.  With  the  exception  of  arrow-heads,  these  relics  have 
always  been  disinterred  from  the  soil  and  never  from  the 
Japanese  tombs,  nor  from  the  neolithic  sites.  Some  halberds 
have  been  traced  to  Shangton  of  China.  Bells  have  also  been 
associated  with  China,  although  their  decoration  resemble  those 
on  the  Japanese  pottery.  The  daggers  bear  a  certain  resemblance 
to  the  Malay  "kirs,"  but  there  is  no  conclusive  evidence  to 
identify  these  two  weapons  with  one  another.  As  for  swords 


65.  Kume,  "Kodaishi,"  pp.  222-223. 

66.  Hagino,  "Dainihon-Tsushi,"  Vol.  I,  p.  14.     Nakamura,  p.  54-55. 

6l 


and  arrow-heads,  it  is  suggested  that  since  the  stone  swords  and 
arrow-heads,  which  have  been  discovered  in  the  Japanese  tombs 
indicate  that  they  are  modelled  after  the  bronze  weapons,  the 
bronze  swords  and  arrow-heads  are  the  connecting  links  between 
the  stone  age  and  the  iron  age. 

Some  of  the  bronze  weapons  were  cast  in  Japan  for  the 
moulds  have  often  been  discovered.  It  is  further  interesting  to 
note  that  the  bronze  weapons  have  never  been  found  in  southern 
Kiushiu,  whereas  provinces  facing  Korea  and  China  have  yielded 
them  in  considerable  number. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  a  matter  of  conjecture  how  this 
culture  came  into  Japan.  The  bronze  vestiges  themselves  show 
that  they  have  a  certain  connection  with  both  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent and  Yamato.  It  seems  also  certain  that  this  culture  pre- 
ceded the  iron  Japanese  culture  for  it  is  impossible  that  the 
owners  of  the  bronze  weapons  could  have  gained  a  foothold  in 
Japan  after  it  was  held  by  the  Japanese. 

But  who  were  the  possessors  of  this  culture  in  Japan  ? 

Some  express  the  belief  that  the  bronze  culture  belonged  to 
the  earliest  Japanese  immigrants  to  western  Japan  and  that  as 
time  went  on,  self-contained  evolution  from  bronze  to  iron  took 
place  in  Japan.  The  objection  has  been  made  to  this  opinion 
that  no  bronze  relics  except  arrow-heads,  have  been  found  in 
the  Japanese  tombs.  Mr.  Brinkley  replies  to  this  objection 
however  that,  "this  culture  belonged  to  the  Japanese  who  immi- 
grated to  Japan  prior  to  the  dolmen  age.67 

If  we  can  prove  that  dolmen  building  in  Japan  was  intro- 
duced after  the  arrival  of  the  Japanese  immigrants,  Mr.  Brink- 
ley's  opinion  may  have  full  weight. 

67.  Brinkley,  p.  49. 

62 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  STATE. 

We  have  seen  in  the  foregoing  chapter  that  the  early  Japanese 
immigrating  from  Korea  established  a  foothold  in  Japan  at  the 
expense  of  the  aboriginal  Yemishi  or  Ainu.  It  does  not  necessarily 
follow,  however,  that  because  the  Japanese  were  victorious 
over  the  Yemishi,  the  Japanese  state  at  its  beginning,  consisted 
of  all  the  Japanese  as  a  body  politic  as  some  ardent  advocates 
of  the  patriarchal  origin  of  the  Japanese  state  contend. 

When  William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  was  crowned  at  West- 
minster in  1066  A.  D.,  he  exercised  his  political  power  most 
effectively  all  over  the  conquered  provinces.  If  we  can  accept 
the  hypothesis  that  the  state  is  the  possessor  of  sovereign  power 
and  if  this  sovereign  power  means  the  most  effective  power  over 
a  considerable  geographical  area  and  its  inhabitants,  then  King 
William  I  of  England  was  himself  the  State.  The  state  in  this 
sense  is  unquestionably  distinct  from  the  nation  which  seems  to 
be  fundamentally  a  community  of  the  same  ethnological  origin. 

The  Japanese  legend  which  is  contained  in  both  the  Kojikil' 
and  Nihongi  must  be  our  principal  source  for  the  study  of  the 
origin  of  the  Japanese  state.  Although  the  Nihongi  opens  its 
first  chapter  with  an  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world  and 
sets  forth  the  legend  in  more  detail  than  the  Kojiki,  these  two 
records  do  not  differ  fundamentally. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Kojiki  adheres  more  closely  to  the 
genuine  expression  of  the  early  life  of  the  nation  and  therefore 
must  be  regarded  as  the  basis  for  our  present  study.  We  shall, 
however,  compare  it  carefully  with  the  Nihongi  and  summarize 
the  Japanese  legend  as  follows: 

63 


At  the  beginning  of  the  "Heaven  and  Earth/'  there  were  in 
Takamanohara  or  "Plain  of  high  Heaven,"  three  invisible  "super- 
iors" (Kami)  namely  Amenominakanushi,  or  "The  Great 
Central  Being,"  Takamimusubi  and  Kammusubi,  or  "The  Great 
producing  Superiors."  These  Kami  formed  the  trinity  of  the 
Creators  of  the  world.  Two  other  Kami  then  appeared  making 
in  all  five  Kami  known  as  the  invisible  heavenly  superiors. 

They  were  followed  by  seven  generations  of  single  Kami  or 
Kami  couples,  the  last  of  these  couples  being  Izanagi  and  Izanami, 
the  "superiors  of  desire."  Izanagi  and  Izanami,  were  ordered 
by  all  the  other  Kami  to  "make,  consolidate  and  give  birth  to 
the  drifting  land,"1  a  jewelled  spear  (Amenonuhoko)  being  given 
as  a  token  of  authority." 

Thereupon,  the  Kami  couple  at  once  set  to  work  and  standing 
on  a  floating  bridge  (Amenoukibashi),  they  thrust  the  spear  into 
the  ocean  and  begot  an  island  which  was  called  Onokoroshima. 

Then  they  gave  birth  to  the  islands  of  Japan,  namely:  Awaji, 
lyo,  Oki,  Tsukushi,  Iki,  Tsushima,  Sado,  Toyoakitsushima,  and 
six  other  small  islands,  assigning  many  Kami  to  take  charge  of 
them.  They  also  brought  forth  the  Kami  of  the  wind's  breath, 
of  the  river,  the  sea,  the  mountains,  the  trees,  fire,  etc.  When 
Izanami,  the  female  Kami  gave  birth  to  the  Kami  of  fire,  she 
lost  her  life  and  was  buried  on  the  borders  of  Izumo  and  Hoki. 
Lamenting  the  death  of  his  wife,  Izanagi  like  Orpheus,  visited 
the  land  of  night  to  implore  her  to  return  to  him.  She  replied 
that  unhappily  having  already  eaten  within  the  portals  of  the 
land  of  night,  she  must  ask  the  Kami  of  the  underworld  to  allow 
her  to  depart  and  bade  him  refrain  from  looking  upon  her  face, 
while  she  was  seeking  this  permission.  But  impatient  at  her 
delay,  he  broke  off  a  tooth  of  his  comb  and  lighting  it  approached 
her  only  to  find  her  a  hideous  mass  of  corruption  in  the  midst 


1.  K.  p.  10. 

64 


of  which  were  the  eight  Kami  of  thunder.  Izanagi  fled  horrified 
while  Izanami,  angry  at  being  put  to  shame,  sent  the  hosts  of 
Hades  to  pursue  him. 

Many  times  Izanagi  baffled  his  pursuers  until  finally  Izanami 
herself  joined  the  chase.  But  Izanagi  placed  a  huge  rock  in 
the  "even  pass  of  Hades,"  thus  preventing  her  from  reaching 
him.  From  the  confines  of  the  two  worlds  they  exchanged  bitter 
threats.  When  Izanagi  emerged  from  the  realm  of  Hades,  he 
proceeded  to  Hiuga  and  there  purified  himself  by  bathing  in  a 
stream. 

Then  there  were  born  from  his  person  and  his  possessions 
many  other  Kami,  the  most  important  of  whom  were  Amaterasu 
or  "the  goddess  of  the  Sun"  from  his  left  eye,  Tsukiyomi,  or  "the 
Kami  of  the  Moon,"  from  his  right  eye,  and  Susanoo,  or  "the 
Impetuous  male"  from  his  nose.  Rejoicing  over  these  three 
new  born  children,  especially  Amaterasu  whose  appearance  was 
radiant  like  the  sunshine,  Izanagi  gave  her  his  necklace  and 
made  her  ruler  of  Takamanohara,  or  the  "Plain  of  High  Heaven." 
To  Tsukiyomi,  he  gave  Yorunoosukumi,  or  "the  country  of 
Night,"  and  Susanoo  was  ordered  to  govern  Unabara,  or  "the 
sea  plain."  Amaterasu  and  Tsukiyomi  went  at  once  to  their 
respective  domains,  but  Susanoo,  instead  of  going  to  his  realm, 
wandered  about  disconsolately  crying  and  wailing  until  his  beard 
reached  the  pit  of  his  stomach.  Upon  his  father's  inquiring  the 
cause  of  his  grief,  Susanoo,  the  motherless  child,  replied  that 
he  desired  to  go  to  his  mother  in  Hades.  Whereupon  Izanagi 
expelled  him  but  Susanoo  expressed  his  wish  to  bid  farewell  to 
his  sister  in  Takamanohara  before  going  into  exile.  After  im- 
posing this  sentence  upon  his  disobedient  son,  Izanagi  retired  to 
Awaji  and  thence  to  eternity. 

Susanoo  proceeded  to  Takamanohara,  his  journey  being 
attended  by  the  shaking  of  mountains  and  stopping  of  rivers. 
When  Amaterasu  learned  his  coming,  she  prepared  to  receive 

6s 


him  in  warlike  guise,  for  she  distrusted  his  intention  and  fearing 
that  he  would  plunder  Takamanohara,  she  sternly  inquired  into 
the  cause  of  his  appearance.  Susanoo  disavowed  all  evil  inten- 
tions and  tried  to  prove  his  sincerity  by  taking  an  oath  and  en- 
gaging in  a  Kami-producing  competition  with  his  sister.  The 
condition  of  this  competition  was  that  if  his  children  were  female 
he  would  be  condemned,  but  if  male,  his  sincerity  would  be 
affirmed. 

They  took  their  stands  on  opposite  sides  of  the  tranquil  River 
of  Heaven,  and  Susanoo  handed  his  sword  to  Amaterasu  who 
broke  it  into  three  pieces,  chewed  the  fragments,  and  blowing 
them  from  her  mouth,  produced  three  female  Kami.  Then  she 
lent  Susanoo  her  jewels.  He  crunched  them  in  his  mouth  and 
from  their  fragments  five  male  Kami  were  born.  Amaterasu 
claimed  the  males  as  her  own,  proclaiming  Amenooshiho,  the 
eldest  as  her  heir,  and  assigned  the  females  to  her  brother. 

Thus,  Susanoo  won  his  sister's  confidence.  He  soon,  how- 
ever exposed  his  lawless  character  by  destroying  one  of  Ama- 
terasu's  rice  fields.  He  then  rudely  intruded  upon  his  sister 
while  she  was  celebrating  a  harvest  festival  in  the  Palace.  But 
she  was  lenient  with  him  and  did  not  lose  patience  until  Susanoo 
flaying  a  piebald  horse,  threw  it  through  a  hole  which  he  made 
in  the  roof  of  the  Palace,  into  the  room  where  Amaterasu  was 
weaving  garments.  She  was  so  greatly  offended  that  she  retired 
into  a  murky  cavern  placing  a  rock  at  the  entrance,  whereupon 
darkness  covered  the  universe. 

The  "voices  of  a  myriad  Kami  were  like  unto  the  flies  as  they 
swarmed  and  a  myriad  portents  of  woe  all  arose."2 

In  despair  the  eight  hundred  myriads  of  Kami  assembled  in 
the  bed  of  the  tranquil  river  and  took  counsel  together  to  find 
some  means  of  enticing  Amaterasu  from  her  retirement. 


2.  K.  p.  26.     Chamberlain,  p.  54. 

66 


"Accordingly  the  Kami  Omohikane  with  profound  device  and 
far-reaching  thought  at  length  gathered  long-singing  birds  of  the 
Eternal  Land  and  made  them  utter  their  prolonged  cry  to  one 
another. 

"Moreover,  he  made  the  Kami  Tatsukara  to  stand  beside  the 
Rock-door.  Then  Ameno-Koyane,  ancestor  of  the  Nakatomi, 
and  Futo-dama,  ancestor  of  the  Imibe,  dug  up  a  five-hundred 
branched  true  Sakaki  (Cleyera  Japonica)  tree  of  the  Heavenly 
Mt.  Kagu.  On  its  upper  branches  they  hung  an  august  five- 
hundred  string  of  Yasaka  jewels.  On  the  middle  branches  they 
hung  an  eight-hand  mirror.  On  its  lower  branches  they  hung 
blue  soft  offerings  and  white  soft  offerings.  Then  they  recited 
their  liturgy  together. 

"Moreover,  Ameno-Uzume,  ancestress  of  the  Sarumeno-Kimi, 
took  in  her  hand  a  spear  wreathed  with  Eulalia  grass,  and  stand- 
ing before  the  door  of  the  Rock-cave  of  Heaven,  skillfully 
performed  a  mimic  dance."3 

Amaterasu  filled  with  curiosity,  moved  the  rock  even  so  little, 
and  peeped  from  the  cave;  whereupon  the  Kami  Tatsukara  or 
"strong  arm"  grasped  her  hand  and  lead  her  to  the  newly  built 
palace  where  three  female  Kami  were  in  constant  attendance. 

Thus  the  light  of  the  sun  once  more  filled  the  "Plain  of  high 
Heaven."  The  eight  hundred  myriad  Kami  attributing  this 
calamity  to  the  misconduct  of  Susanoo  decided  to  punish  him  by 
imposing  a  fine  of  thousand  tables  as  an  offering.  They  further 
ordered  his  beard  to  be  cut  off  and  his  finger  and  toe  nails  to 
be  pulled  out. 

The  Kami  Amenokoyane  then  recited  prayers  for  purification 
after  which  Susanoo  was  expelled  from  Takamanohara. 

3.  Aston,  Vol.  I.  pp.  44-45. 

67 


Accompanied  by  his  son  Itakeru,  Susanno  descended  to  Korea 
and  lived  at  Soshimori  or  "Ox-head  Mountain"  of  Silla.  Re- 
marking that  "  in  the  region  of  the  land  of  Han  (Korea)  there 
is  gold  and  silver.  It  will  not  be  well  if  the  country  ruled  by  my 
son  should  not  possess  floating  riches  (ships),"4  he  planted  trees 
from  which  he  built  ships  to  carry  the  riches  to  Japan.  He  later 
returned  to  Izumo.  When  he  arrived  at  the  head-waters  of 
the  River  Hi,  he  saw  a  chop-stick  floating  down  the  stream. 
Inferring  that  people  must  live  further  up  the  river,  he  set  out 
to  look  for  them.  He  soon  came  upon  an  old  couple  who  were 
lamenting  as  they  embraced  a  girl.  He  asked  them  the  cause 
of  their  grief.  The  old  man  replied  that  he  was  an  earthly  Kami, 
son  of  the  Kami  of  the  mountains  who  was  borne  by  Izanami 
before  her  departure  for  Hades.  He  further  explained  to  Susanoo 
that  he  had  once  had  eight  daughters  but  every  year  an  eight- 
forked  serpent  came  from  the  country  of  Koshi  and  devoured 
one  of  them.  This  daughter  Lady  Kushinada  was  the  last  and 
at  any  moment  the  monster  might  appear  to  carry  her  off. 
Susanoo  announcing  himself  as  the  brother  of  Amaterasu, 
promised  them  aid  if  they  would  give  him  their  daughter.  By  a 
cunning  stratagem  he  killed  the  eight- forked  serpent  and  found 
in  its  body  a  sword  which  he  sent  to  Amaterasu  and  which  was 
later  known  as  the  "Herb  queller."  He  then  built  a  palace  at 
Suga  in  Izumo  where  he  lived  with  the  Lady  Kushinada.  From 
this  palace  he  one  day  beheld  many  clouds  which  inspired  him  to 
compose  a  poem: 

"Many  clouds  arise, 
On  all  sides  a  manifold  fence, 
to  receive  within  it  the  spouse, 
Thy  form  a  manifold  fence, 
Ah,  that  manifold  fence."5 


4.  N.  p.  38.     Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  58. 

5.  K.  pp.  30-31.     N.  p.  35.     Aston,  Vol.  I,  pp.  54-55. 

68 


The  Lady  Kushinada  bore  him  Onamuji,  or  "the  great  name 
possessor,"  after  which  Susanoo  went  to  Hades. 

Onamuji  had  many  brothers  and  sisters,  the  eldest  of  whom, 
Itakeru,  after  reigning  in  Silla,  returned  to  Japan  and  went  to 
Kii  province  where  he  and  his  two  sisters  engaged  in  forestry. 

Onamuji's  other  brothers  were  jealous  of  his  fame,  often 
maltreating  him  and  sometimes  even  planning  his  death.  With 
some  difficulty  he  escaped  these  perils  and  went  to  his  father 
Susanoo  in  Hades,  but  his  visit  was  unwelcome  and  his  father 
evinced  his  displeasure  by  trying  to  cause  his  death.  It  was  only 
by  the  help  of  the  Lady  Shiseri,  daughter  of  Susanoo,  that  he 
was  able  to  return  to  the  upper  world. 

He  then  married  Princess  Yamaki  of  Inaba  and  began  the 
work  of  pacifying  and  consolidating  the  land.  About  this  time 
the  Kami  Sukunahikona,  son  of  Takamimusubi  (the  great  pro- 
ducing Kami)  came  to  Izumo  from  the  "land  of  eternal"  and 
assisted  Onamuji  in  improving  his  realm.  They  introduced  the 
practice  of  medicine  and  divination  reducing  disease  and  mor- 
tality among  men  and  animals  and  greatly  bettering  the  condi- 
tion of  the  land. 

One  day  Onamuji  spoke  to  Sukunahikona,  and  said,  "May 
we  not  say  that  the  country  which  we  have  made  is  well  made?" 
Sukunahikona  answered  and  said,  "In  some  parts  it  is  complete 
and  in  others  it  is  incomplete."6  But  the  Kami  Sukunahikona 
departed  for  the  land  of  the  eternal  before  the  work  was  com- 
pleted. 

After  this  "Wherever  there  was  in  the  land  a  part  which  was 
imperfect  Onamuji  visited  it  in  person  and  succeeded  in  repairing 
it.  Coming  at  last  to  the  province  of  Izumo,  he  spake  and  said : 
This  central  land  of  reed  plains  has  always  been  waste  and  wild. 


6.  N.  p.  39.     Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  60. 

69 


The  very  rocks  and  trees,  and  huts  were  all  given  to  violence. 
But  I  have  now  reduced  it  to  submission,  and  there  is  none  who 
can  complain.'  " 

Therefore  he  said  finally:  "It  is  I,  and  I  alone,  who  now 
govern  this  land.  Is  there  perchance,  anyone  who  could  join 
with  me  in  governing  the  world?"  Upon  this  a  divine  radiance 
illuminated  the  sea,  and  of  a  sudden  there  was  something  which 
floated  towards  him  and  said,  "Were  I  not  here,  how  couldst 
thou  subdue  this  land?  It  is  because  I  am  here  that  thou  hast 
been  enabled  to  accomplish  this  mighty  undertaking."  Then 
Onamuji  inquired  saying:  "Then  who  art  thou?"  It  replied  and 
said:  "I  am  thy  guardian  spirit,  the  wonderous  spirit."  Then 
said  Onamuji:  "True  I  know  therefore  that  thou  art  my  guardian 
spirit,  the  wonderous  spirit,  where  dost  thou  now  wish  to  dwell  ?" 
The  spirit  answered  and  said :  "I  wish  to  dwell  on  Mount  Mimuro 
in  the  province  of  Yamato."  Accordingly  he  built  a  shrine  in 
that  place  and  made  the  spirit  go  and  dwell  there. 

This  is  the  Kami  of  Omiwa."7 

Meanwhile  Amaterasu  was  still  ruling  in  Takamanohara. 

But  she  was  anxious  to  send  her  heir  Amenooshiho  who 
married  Takamimusubi's  daughter,  to  rule  Japan,  for  the  islands 
had  been  produced  by  her  father  Izanagi.  Therefore  calling  the 
Kami  together  she  took  counsel  with  them  to  determine  the  best 
means  of  accomplishing  her  purpose.  The  Kami  Amenohohi  was 
then  sent  to  Izumo  to  persuade  Onamuji  to  abdicate.  But  after 
three  years  when  the  messenger  failed  to  return,  she  sent  his 
son.  But  he  too  remained  away. 

Thereupon  the  Kami  in  council  decided  to  send  the  brave 
Kami  Amenowaka  to  Izumo.  But  he  added  disloyalty  to  negli- 
gence by  marrying  the  daughter  of  Onamuji.  Again  the  Kami 


7.  N.  pp.  39-40.     Aston,  Vol.  I,  pp.  60-61. 

70 


Council  was  convened  by  Amtaerasu  and  her  coadjutor,  Taka- 
mimusubi,  and  at  this  time  the  Kami  Takemikatzuchi  and  Futtsu 
were  commissioned  to  go  to  Izumo  and  to  employ  force  if 
necessity  required.  These  two  descended  to  Izumo  and  delivered 
the  Heavenly  message  to  Onamuji  saying:  "Amaterasu  has 
charged  and  sent  us  to  ask  saying,  'We  have  designed  to  charge 
our  august  child  with  thy  dominion  as  the  land  which  he  shall 
govern/  7  What  is  thy  intention?  Wilt  thou  stand  aside  or  no?"8 
Thereupon  Onamuji  after  consultation  with  his  eldest  son  Koto- 
shiro  who  advised  him  saying,  "The  Heavenly  Kami  has  now  ad- 
dressed to  us  this  inquiry.  My  father  ought  respectfully  to  with- 
draw, nor  will  I  make  any  opposition,"9  made  this  reply :  "My  son, 
on  whom  I  rely,  has  already  departed.  I  too,  will  depart.  If  I 
were  to  make  resistance  all  the  Gods  of  this  land  would  certainly 
resist  also.  But  as  I  now  respectfully  withdraw,  who  else  will 
be  so  bold  as  to  refuse  submission/'10  Forthwith,  he  handed  a 
broad  spear  to  the  envoys,  saying,  "By  means  of  this  spear  I  was 
at  last  successful,  if  the  Heavenly  august  child  will  use  this 
spear  to  rule  the  land,  he  will  undoubtedly  subdue  it  to  tran- 
quillity."11 

Thus  he  abdicated  and  retired  to  the  new  palace  which  had 
been  built  for  him  by  order  of  the  Takamanohara  Court.  The 
Kami  Amenohohi  was  commissioned  to  wait  upon  him. 

Izumo  being  pacified,  Amaterasu  summoned  her  grandchild 
Ninigi  whom  she  had  designated  as  the  ruler  of  Japan  in  place 
of  his  father  Amenooshiho,  and  solemnly  declared,  "This  rich 
country  is  the  territory  over  which  my  descendants  shall  be  the 
Lords.  Do  thou,  my  august  grandchild  proceed  thither  and 
govern  it.  Go,  and  may  prosperity  attend  thy  dynasty.  May  it 

8.  K.  pp.  47-48.     Chamberlain,  p.  101. 

9.  N.  p.  45.     Aston,  Vol.   I,   pp.  68-69. 

10.  N.  p.  45.     Aston,  Vol  I,  p.  69. 

11.  N.  p.  45.    Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  69. 


like  Heaven  and  Earth  endure  forever."12  With  these  words 
she  bestowed  upon  him  three  treasures,  the  curved  jewel  of 
Yasaka,  the  bronze  mirror  of  Yata,  and  the  sword  of  Ameno- 
murakumo,  saying:  "Regard  this  mirror  exactly  as  if  it  were  our 
august  spirit,  and  reverence  it  as  if  reverencing  Us."13  She  also 
ordered  the  Kami,  Amenokoyane,  Futodama  and  a  multitude  of 
others  to  follow  Ninigi. 

On  the  road,  Ninigi  and  his  party  were  met  by  an  earthly 
Kami  from  Ise  named  Saruta  who  offered  to  be  his  vanguard. 
They  then  descended  to  peak  of  Mount  Takachiho  in  Hiuga. 
From  here  Ninigi  went  to  Cape  Kasasa  where  he  received  the 
earthly  Kami  Nagasa  who  offered  Ninigi  his  country.  Ninigi 
was  delighted,  saying,  "This  place  is  opposite  to  the  land  of 
Kara  (Korea),  one  comes  straight  across  to  the  august  Cape  of 
Kasasa,  and  it  is  a  land  whereon  the  morning  sun  shines  straight, 
a  land  which  the  evening  sun's  light  illuminates.  So  this 
place  is  an  exceedingly  good  place."14  Here  a  new  palace  was 
built  and  all  the  Kami  served  him  with  the  same  rites  that  were 
observed  in  Takamanohara. 

Ninigi  married  the  Lady  Konohanasakuya,  "Brilliant  Blos- 
som," a  daughter  of  the  Kami  of  Mountains,  the  son  of  Izanagi. 
This  Kami  also  sent  Ninigi  his  elder  daughter,  the  Lady  Endur- 
ing-as-Rock.  But  she  was  not  welcomed  at  the  Palace.  There- 
upon the  Kami  of  Mountains  angrily  declared  that  the  lives  of 
the  Heavenly  sovereigns  would  be  comparatively  short.  The 
Lady  Konohanasakuya  bore  Ninigi  two  sons,  Hosuseri  and 
Hohodemi. 

Hosuseri  and  Hohodemi  adopted  fishing  and  hunting,  respect- 
ively, as  their  vocations.  One  day  Hohodemi  suggested  that 
they  exchange  pursuits.  But  unfortunately  he  lost  his  brother's 


12.  N.  p.  50.    Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  77. 

13.  K.  p.  51.    Chamberlain,  p.  109. 

14.  K.  p.  52.     Chamberlain,  pp.   112-113. 


hook.  Hosuseri  demanded  that  he  return  it  and  nothing  that 
Hohodemi  could  do  could  make  him  change  his  mind.  So,  weep- 
ing and  lamenting,  Hohodemi  wandered  along  the  sea-shore.  Here 
he  came  upon  the  Kami  of  salt  who  advised  him  to  consult  with 
the  Kami  of  the  Sea.  When  Hohodemi  arrived  at  the  palace 
of  this  Kami,  he  met  the  beautiful  Lady  Toyotama,  daughter  of 
the  sea  Kami,  whom  he  married.  Her  father  welcomed  him,  and, 
bestowing  upon  him  two  jewels  which  make  the  tide  ebb  and 
flow,  instructed  him  to  defeat  his  brother  in  fishing. 

Hohodemi  returned  to  Japan  on  the  back  of  a  crocodile,  and 
faithfully  followed  the  sea  Kami's  instruction,  with  results  so  dis- 
astrous to  Hosuseri  that  he  was  forced  to  beg  Hohodemi  for  his 
life,  promising  that  he  and  all  of  his  descendants  would  serve  his 
younger  brother  and  his  children.  Thus  the  throne  fell  to  Hoho- 
demi. He  resided  at  Takachiho,  where  Fukiaeji  was  born. 

Fukiaeji  married  his  aunt,  the  Lady  Tamayori,  daughter  of 
the  sea  Kami.  Four  children  were  born  to  them,  namely,  Itsuse, 
Inahi,  Mikenu  and  Senu  (later  the  Emperor  Jimmu). 

Prince  Inahi  went  to  the  sea  Plain,  while  Mikenu  crossed 
into  the  Eternal  land.  Prince  Senu  and  his  elder  brother,  Itsuse, 
dwelling  at  the  Palace  of  Takachiho,  took  counsel  together,  say- 
ing, "By  dwelling  in  what  place  shall  we  most  quietly  carry  on 
the  government  of  the  Empire?  It  were  probably  best  to  go 
east."15 

Thereupon  they  advanced  eastward  by  sea.  "So  when  they 
arrived  at  Usa  in  the  Land  of  Toyo  (Bufen)  two  of  the  natives, 
the  Prince  of  Usa  and  the  Princess  of  Usa,  built  a  Palace  raised 
on  one  foot,  and  offered  them  a  great  august  banquet.  Remov- 
ing thence,  they  dwelt  for  one  year  at  the  Palace  of  Okada  in 
Tsukushi  (Chiku^en). 


15.  K.  p.  63.     Chamberlain,  p.   130. 

73 


"Again  making  a  progress  up  from  that  land,  they  dwelt  seven 
years  at  the  Palace  of  Takeri  in  Aki.  Again  removing  and 
making  a  progress  up  from  that  land,  they  dwelt  eight  years 
at  the  Palace  of  Takashima  in  Kibi."16  Guided  by  Shienetsu  they 
proceeded  from  Takashima  through  Naniwa  to  Kusaka  in  Kinai. 
Here  they  engaged  in  their  first  battle  with  the  Yamato  troops  of 
Chief  Nagasune.  The  battle  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  Prince 
Senu  and  Prince  Itsuse  was  fatally  wounded. 

Attributing  their  defeat  to  the  fact  that  they  fought  facing 
the  sun,  they  decided  to  change  their  position  and  proceeded  by 
sea  to  Kamayama  of  Kii,  where  Prince  Itsuse  died.  Prince  Senu 
then  subdued  the  neighboring  provinces.  After  this  he  encoun- 
tered the  Chief  of  Tobe.  During  the  hard  fighting  which  fol- 
lowed, a  native  (Kumano)  Takakuraji  came  to  his  aid.  On 
account  of  this,  the  expeditionary  troops  were  in  high  spirits. 
Prince  Senu  then  proceeded  to  the  interior  of  Yamato.  But 
mountains  were  so  steep  that  his  troops  could  not  cross  them.  At 
this  juncture  the  spirit  of  Amaterasu  sent  the  Sun-Crow  (Yata- 
garasu)  to  guide  them.  The  troops  pushed  on  and  at  Uda  en- 
countered the  Ukeshi  brothers.  The  younger  surrendered,  but 
the  elder  resisted.  He  was  finally  killed,  however,  by  General 
Michi,  a  distinguished  commander  of  Prince  Senu.  The  natives 
of  Yoshino  welcomed  his  army  and  their  chiefs  expressed  their 
desire  to  be  subject  to  them. 

Hearing  that  in  Kunimi  there  were  armies  of  brigands,  both 
men  and  women,  and  that  the  two  brothers  Shiki  were  prepared 
to  defy  them,  Prince  Senu  made  vessels  of  clay  from  Mount 
K;agu  in  Yamato  and  offered  them  to  the  Heavenly  spirits,  pray- 
ing for  divine  assistance,  after  which  he  subdued  these  enemies. 
He  then  encountered  Nagasune  in  a  fierce  battle.  When  his 
troops  were  nearly  exhausted,  suddenly  a  golden  kite  perched  on 
the  end  of  his  bow,  which  so  dazzled  his  enemy's  troops  that 


16.  K.  p.  63.    Chamberlain,  p.   131. 

74 


they  became  powerless.  "Thereupon  Nagasune  sent  a  messenger 
on  foot,  who  addressed  Prince  Senu,  saying,  'There  was  for- 
merly a  child  of  the  Heavenly  Kami,  who  came  down  from 
Heaven  to  dwell  here  riding  in  a  Rock-boat  of  Heaven.  His 
name  was  Nigihayahi.  He  took  to  wife  my  younger  sister,  of 
whom  he  at  length  had  a  child,  named  Umashimate.  Therefore 
did  I  take  Nigihayahi  for  my  Lord,  and  did  serve  to  him.  Can 
it  be  that  there  are  two  seeds  of  the  children  of  the  Heavenly 
Kami?  Why  should  any  one  take  the  name  of  child  of  the 
Heavenly  Kami  and  therewith  rob  people  of  their  dominions? 
I  have  pondered  this  in  my  heart,  but  have  as  yet  failed  utterly 
to  believe  it/  The  Prince  said,  'There  are  many  other  children 
of  the  Heavenly  Kami.  If  he  whom  thou  hast  taken  as  thy  Lord 
were  truly  a  child  of  the  Heavenly  Kami,  there  would  be  surely 
some  object  which  thou  couldst  show  us  by  way  of  proof/ 

Nagasune  accordingly  brought  a  single  Heavenly  feathered 
arrow  of  Nigihayahi,  and  a  foot-quiver,  and  exhibited  them 
respectfully  to  the  Prince.  The  Prince  examined  them,  and  said : 
'These  are  genuine/  Then  in  his  turn  he  showed  to  Nagasune 
the  single  Heavenly  feathered  arrow  and  quiver  which  he  wore. 
When  Nagasune  saw  the  Heavenly  token,  he  became  more  and 
more  embarrassed.  But  the  murderous  weapons  were  already  pre- 
pared, and  things  were  in  such  a  state  that  he  was  unable  to 
panse  in  his  career.  Therefore  he  adhered  to  his  misguided 
scheme,  and  would  not  alter  his  purpose. 

Nigihayahi,  knowing  from  the  first  that  the  Heavenly  Kami 
had  simply  generously  bestowed  the  Empire  on  the  Heavenly 
grandchild  and  that  in  view  of  the  perverse  disposition  of  Naga- 
sune, it  would  be  useless  to  instruct  him  in  the  relation  of  Heaven 
to  Man,  put  him  to  death.  He  then  came  with  his  army  and 
made  submission."17 

17.  Aston,  Vol.  I,  pp.  128-129. 

75 


Thus  Nagasune  was  subdued.  But  here  and  there  scattered 
bands  of  brigands  offered  resistance  and  Prince  Senu  crushed 
them  one  by  one,  conquering  the  whole  of  Yamato. 

Whereupon  he  assembled  all  the  armies  and  declared :  "Dur- 
ing the  six  years  that  our  expedition  against  the  east  has  lasted, 
owing  to  my  reliance  on  the  Majesty  of  Imperial  Heaven,  the 
wicked  bands  have  met  death.  It  is  true  that  the  frontier  lands 
are  still  unpurified,  and  that  a  remnant  of  evils  is  still  refractory. 
But  in  the  region  of  the  central  land  there  is  no  more  wind  and 
dust.  Truly  we  should  make  a  vast  and  spacious  capital,  and  plan 
it  great  and  strong.  At  present,  things  are  in  a  crude  and  ob- 
scure condition,  and  the  people's  minds  are  unsophisticated.  They 
roost  in  nests  and  dwell  in  caves.  Their  manners  are  simply 
what  is  customary.  Now,  if  a  great  man  were  to  establish  laws, 
justice  could  not  fail  to  flourish."18 

Kashiwabara  of  Yamato  was  selected  as  the  Imperial  Capital 
and  an  order  was  issued  to  erect  an  Imperial  Palace.  Prince 
Senu  then  married  the  Lady  Isuzu,  daughter  of  the  Kami  Koto- 
shiro,  son  of  Onamuji  of  Izumo.  In  the  spring  of  the  following 
year  660  B.  C.  he  solemnly  ascended  the  throne,  proclaiming 
himself  the  first  Emperor  of  Japan.  He  is  known  in  History 
as  the  Emperor  Jimmu. 

We  have  seen  that  both  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi  were  com- 
piled in  the  eighth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  a  time  subse- 
quent to  the  introduction  into  Japan,  of  Chinese  letters  and  Budd- 
hism, and  of  the  establishment  of  a  strong  centralized  govern- 
ment modeled  after  the  Chinese  Tang  institutions,  and  that  the 
compilers  of  these  writings  not  only  worked  under  the  Imperial 
instruction  but  tended  to  project  the  ideas  of  their  own  or  imme- 
diately preceding  time  into  the  primaeval  past. 

18.  Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  131. 

76 


It  is  natural,  therefore,  that  the  Japanese  legend  contained 
in  these  writings  reflects  these  influences.  For  example,  we 
find  in  the  Chinese  legend  the  tranquil  River  or  the  Milky  Way, 
Sun  and  Moon,  which  were  born  from  the  body  of  Panku,  who 
chiseled  out  the  Universe,  the  divination  by  cracks  in  a  deer's 
shoulder  blade,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  similar  to  accounts  in  the 
Japanese  legend.  Izanami's  remark  that  she  had  already  eaten 
the  food  of  the  under-world  resembles  the  Indian  story  of 
Nachiketas  and  Izanagi's  visit  to  the  underworld  appears  to  be 
a  reproduction  of  the  Grecian  legend  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice, 
which  is  based  on  the  Babylonian  myth  of  Ishtar. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  the  Japanese  brought  these 
foreign  ideas  with  them  or  received  them  through  China.  But 
the  existence  of  these  influences  in  the  Japanese  legend  is  fur- 
ther proved  by  Dr.  Saith's  archaeological  investigation,19  wherein 
he  points  out  that  the  Sanko  which  the  Japanese  Buddhist  priests 
hold  can  be  traced  to  the  one  which,  three  or  four  centuries 
before  Christ,  was  associated  with  the  Greek  Gods.  He  further 
shows  that  the  Komainu  (watch  dogs)  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Japanese  shrines  are  similar  to  those  used  in  Babylon  4,000 
years  ago. 

When  we  rationalize  the  Japanese  legend,  we  must  not  only 
carefully  consider  these  facts  but  exercise  the  greatest  caution 
in  criticising  every  page  of  the  records. 

Before  proceeding  to  a  critical  examination  of  the  legend 
we  shall  briefly  state  the  prevalent  Japanese  interpretation. 
Most  students  agree  to  begin  with  the  creation  of  the  Japanese 
islands  as  well  as  many  Kami  by  a  Kami  couple  Izangi  and  Iza- 
nami  interpreting  it  as  the  consolidation  and  pacification  of 
Japan  by  this  couple. 


19.  "Waseda-gakuho,"  May,   1912. 

77 


According  to  their  opinion  the  Kami  couple,  having  their 
base  in  some  small  island  in  the  present  Osake  Bay,  pacified  the 
aborigines  of  Japan  and  when  the  islands  were  consolidated,  they 
made  their  daughter  Amaterasu  (the  Goddess  of  the  Sun)  ruler 
of  Japan.  Takamanohara  was  not  the  name  of  her  domain  but 
of  her  seat  of  government,  which  is  identical  with  the  present 
Ise  or  Yamato,  because  there  we  find  names,  Takamano,  Mount 
Kagu,  etc.  Tsukiyomi  was  sent  to  a  place  in  southern  China, 
Yorunokuni  being  identical  with  the  country  of  the  Sunset, 
namely,  China.  Susanoo  was  assigned  to  southern  Korea,  Una- 
bara  being  identical  with  the  Ancient  Silla.  Thus  the  Kami 
couple's  realm  which  embraced  Japan,  southern  Korea  and  south- 
ern China,  was  partitioned  among  their  three  children. 

Susanoo  went  to  Korea,  but  soon  returned,  leaving  his  son 
Itakeru  to  rule  in  his  place.  He  settled  at  Izumo,  which,  being 
so  far  from  Takamanohara,  could  not  receive  protection  from 
that  Court.  Thereupon,  Susanoo  pacified  this  province  and 
established  his  own  principality,  independent  of  the  Takamano- 
hara Court.  His  son,  Onamuji^  assisted  by  Sukunahikona,  son 
of  Takamimusubi,  who  came  from  southern  China,  made  Izumo 
a  flourishing  country.  Hearing  of  this  prosperous  province 
Amaterasu  sitting  at  Takamanohara  (Yamato)  decided  to  take 
the  affairs  of  Izumo  into  her  own  hand.  She  sent  envoys  but 
Onamuji,  Chief  of  Izumo,  was  not  willing  to  comply  with  her 
request.  Finally  Amaterasu  sent  her  warriors  to  demand  his 
abdication  on  the  ground  that  the  whole  of  Japan  belonged  to 
her  as  the  legitimate  successor  of  Izanagi  and  Izanami.  Onamuji 
possessed  (Ushuhaku)  Izumo  as  his  private  property,  but  Ama- 
terasu demanded  it  by  virtue  of  her  sovereign  right  (Shirasu). 
Kotoshiro,  the  Izumo  Chief's  son,  advised  him  to  abdicate,  say- 
ing that  Amaterasu  and  her  direct  descendants  were  the  august 
sovereigns  of  Japan.  The  Chiefs  second  son  refused  to  obey, 
but  the  envoy's  military  force  reduced  him  to  submission. 

78 


Thereupon  Onamuji  respectfully  expressed  his  intention  of 
abdication.  Amaterasu,  delighted  by  the  great  reverence  paid 
her  by  the  Izumo  family,  deified  Onamuji  at  the  Palace  in  Izumo 
and  Amenohohi,  a  member  of  her  family,  was  made  to  serve 
him.  This  Palace  is  the  present  Great  Shrine  of  Izumo  (Izumo- 
Taisha)  and  Amenohohi's  descendants  are  the  present  Senge  and 
Kitashima  families. 

Izumo  was  now  pacified,  but  Tsukushi  (present  southern 
Kiushiu)  was  in  a  state  of  turmoil.  Therefore  Amaterasu, 
assisted  by  Takami-musubi,  whose  daughter  married  Amenoo- 
shihi,  Amaterasu's  heir,  planned  to  send  her  grandchild  Ninigi 
to  smite  the  brigands. 

When  Ninigi's  expeditionary  army  was  about  to  set  out, 
Amaterasu  summoned  him,  and,  bestowing  upon  him  a  bronze 
mirror  of  Yata,  a  curved  jewel  of  Yasakani  and  an  iron  sword 
of  Amenomurakumo  as  tokens  of  authority,  declared  that  "this 
land  is  the  land  over  which  thou  shalt  rule."20  She  ordered 
Amenokoyane  (the  ancestor  of  Nakatomi  family,  later  Fujiwara) 
and  Futodama  (the  ancestor  of  Imibe  family)  to  follow  him  as 
administrators  of  the  Shinto  rites.  Besides  these  she  com- 
manded Amenousume  (the  ancestress  of  Saru-me-no-Kimi)  to 
take  charge  of  sacred  music  and  dancing,  and  Amenooshihi  (the 
ancestor  of  military  clan  of  Otomo)  and  Okume  (the  ancestor 
of  military  clan  of  Kume)  to  lead  armies. 

Saruta  of  Ise  guided  Ninigi's  party  to  Takachiho  of  Hiuga  in 
Kiushiu,  probably  taking  the  sea  route  from  Naniwa  or  Kii  via 
Shikoku  to  Hiuga.  Ninigi  built  a  palace  at  Kasasa  (the  present 
Kaseda  of  Satsuma)  and,  preserving  the  three  treasures  given 
by  Amaterasu  as  the  tokens  of  the  Japanese  sovereign,  lived 
there.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  local  chief  of  Tsukushi. 

20.  Chamberlain,  p.  107. 

79 


After  his  death  his  two  sons,  Hosuseri  and  Hohodemi,  quar- 
reled. 

Hohodemi,  who  was  aided  by  the  King  of  Silla,  his  father- 
in-law,  was  at  last  victorious  over  his  elder  brother.  Hosuseri, 
vanquished,  became  his  servant,  and  was  the  ancestor  of  the 
Hayato. 

Hohodemi  ruled  at  Takachiho  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Fukiaeji,  who  married  his  mother's  sister,  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Silla.  They  had  four  children,  Itsuse,  Inahi,  Mikenu 
and  Senu. 

Mikenu  went  to  southern  China,  Inahi  to  Silla,  his  mother's 
country,  while  the  eldest,  Prince  Itsuse,  and  the  youngest,  Prince 
Senu,  remained  at  the  Palace  of  Takachiho.  These  two  took 
counsel  together  and  decided  to  go  to  the  east,  Yamato,  the  seat 
of  their  great  ancestress'  capital.  Meanwhile,  Yamato,  after 
Ninigi's  departure  for  Tsukushi,  fell  into  disorder  and,  at  the 
time  that  Prince  Senu  was  preparing  to  go  there,  many  local 
chieftains  were  occupying  the  country  among  whom  Nagasune 
was  the  most  powerful.  Nagasune  acknowledged  as  his  Lord, 
Prince  Nigihayahi,  a  brother  of  Ninigi. 

Prince  Semi's  party  moved  by  sea  to  Usa  of  Tsukushi,  thence 
to  Takashima  of  Kibi,  and  from  there  to  Kusaka,  somewhere  in 
Kinai  facing  Osaka  Bay.  His  first  battle  was  fought  with 
Nagasune  at  Kusaka,  in  which  Prince  Itsuse  was  fatally  wounded. 
The  prince  changed  his  course,  and  from  Kii,  finally  conquered 
Nagasune  and  other  brigands.  During  his  contest,  Nagasune 
sent  a  messenger  to  Prince  Senu,  saying  that  Nigihayahi  is  the 
legitimate  ruler  of  Yamato,  for  which  statement  he  presented 
proofs.  But  Senu  was  able  to  show  similar  proofs.  Nagasune 
and  the  natives  of  Yamato  recognized  that  Prince  Senu's  claim 
was  genuine.  Nevertheless  they  continued  fighting.  Finally, 
however,  Nigihayahi  killed  Nagasune  and  with  his  son  Umashi- 

80 


mate  surrendered  to  Prince  Semi,  who  commended  him  and  made 
him  one  of  his  generals.  The  descendants  of  this  general  became 
the  military  clan  Mononobe. 

Prince  Senu  then  married  the  lady  Isuzu,  daughter  of  Koto- 
shiro,  son  of  the  Izumo  Chief  Onamuji,  after  which  he  caused 
himself  to  be  crowned  Emperor  of  Japan.21 

Students  who  thus  interpret  the  Japanese  legend  contend  that 
upon  the  pacification  of  the  aborigines,  Izanagi,  the  patriarch  of 
the  Japanese  people,  designated  his  daughter  Amaterasu  as  the 
ruler  of  Japan,  by  the  inherent  right  belonging  to  the  direct 
descendants  of  the  original  trinity,  Amenominakanushi,  Taka- 
mimusubi  and  Kammusubi.  Amaterasu,  the  Goddess  of  the 
Sun,  sitting  at  Takamanohara,  in  turn  transferred  her  right  to 
her  august  grandchild  Ninigi,  declaring,  "  This  rich  country  is 
the  territory  over  which  my  descendants  shall  be  the  Lords. 
Do  thou,  my  august  grandchild,  proceed  thither  and  govern  it. 
Go  and  may  prosperity  attend  thy  dynasty,  may  it,  like  Heaven 
and  earth,  endure  forever."22 

The  three  treasures  which  she  bestowed  upon  Ninigi  were 
indeed  the  token  of  this  inherent  authority,  and  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  the  present  Emperor.  The  grand  foundation  of  our 
Imperial  authority  was  therefore  laid  down  by  this  Takamano- 
hara declaration.  Consequently  the  Yamato  conquest  by  the 
Emperor  Jimmu  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  origin  of  the  Empire. 
It  was  only  the  reconquest  of  Yamato,  for  Yamato  was  once 
Takamanohara,  the  capitol  of  the  Goddess  of  the  Sun,  as  well 
as  the  trinity  of  the  Creator. 

It  is  on  this  ground  that  Professor  N.  Hozumi  expounds  the 
patriarchal  origin  of  the  Japanese  state.  "The  Nation  is  con- 
sidered as  forming  one  vast  family,  the  Imperial  House  stand- 

21.  See  for  instance  Dr.  Ariga's  NihonkoKuho-Gaku,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-36. 

22.  Aston,  Vol.  I,  p.  77. 

8l 


ing  at  its  head  as  the  principal  family,  and  all  subjects  under  it 
as  members  of  Houses  which  stand  in  the  relation  of  branch 
family  to  the  Imperial  House. 

It  is  for  that  reason  the  word  Oyake  or  Great  House,  which 
is  now  usually  used  in  the  meaning  of  Public  or  sometimes  of 
government,  was  formerly  very  frequently  used  in  the  sense 
of  Imperial  Court  or  the  Emperor.  It  is  for  the  same  reason, 
again,  that  the  Imperial  House  has  no  clan  or  family  name."23 

This  theory  is  undoubtedly  plausible  and  it  has  been  accepted 
by  Japanese  people  for  many  years  as  the  explanation  of  the 
origin  of  the  state.  But  it  is  impossible  for  the  modern  student 
to  base  his  conclusions  upon  this  interpretation  of  the  legend 
without  further  examination  of  external  evidences. 

Considering  the  legend  closely  we  are  struck  by  the  impor- 
tance of  identifying  Takamanohara,  for  this  is  the  key  to  the 
legend  and  upon  it  depends  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the 
origin  of  the  Japanese  state. 

When  the  Kami  couple,  Izanagi  and  Izanami,  arrived  at  the 
Island  of  Onogoro,  Takamanohara  seems  to  have  been  either  a 
foreign  country  or  Heaven.  Yet  when  Amaterasu  was  ruling 
Takamanohara  it  appears  to  have  been  Yamato,  since  there 
are  some  place  names  in  this  section  similar  to  those  in  Takamano- 
hara. 

This  suggests  to  some  students  that  Takamanohara  can  be 
identified  with  either  China,  Korea  or  Yamato. 

If  Takamanohara  was  either  China  or  Korea,  why  did  Ninigi 
arrive  at  Hiuga  instead  of  going  to  Izumo  or  some  other  neigh- 
boring province?  The  Chinese  records24  state  that  the  Japanese 
were  descended  from  the  Chinese  rulers,  but,  as  has  been  shown 

23.  Hozumi.    "Ancestor-worship  and  Japanese  Law,"  p.  103. 

24.  See  the  chapter  of  racial  sources. 

82 


in  a  preceding  chapter,  external  evidences  are  insufficient  to  prove 
this  claim. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  Takamanohara  was  in  Yamato,  why 
did  Izanagi  perform  the  task  of  pacifying  Japan  from  the  island 
of  Onogoro,  a  place  most  inconveniently  situated  for  such  an 
undertaking?  Why,  again,  did  Amaterasu  mysteriously  disap- 
pear from  Takamanohara  after  Ninigi's  descent  into  Hiuga, 
leaving  Yamato  to  the  mercy  of  bands  of  brigands?  What  be- 
came of  Tsukiyomi,  the  Kami  of  Moon,  after  he  was  sent  to 
the  country  of  Night? 

The  geographical  distribution  of  dolmens  in  Japan  indicates 
that  of  the  three  centers  of  ancient  Japanese  culture,  namely, 
Izumo,  Tsukushi  (the  northern  half  of  Kiushiu),  and  Yamato, 
Izumo  was  the  oldest.  Moreover  the  legend  itself  describes  Izu- 
mo as  a  flourishing  country,  whereas  it  makes  no  mention  of 
any  particular  state  of  prosperity  in  Takamanohara,  Tsukushi  or 
Yamato. 

Taking  all  these  points  into  consideration,  may  we  not  con- 
clude that  Takamanohara  as  such  never  really  existed  in  either 
Japan  or  any  foreign  country? 

What,  then,  is  the  meaning  of  the  frequent  allusions  to 
Takamanohara  in  the  legend? 

There  seems  little  doubt  that,  generally  speaking,  all  historical 
records  have  been  made  to  serve  some  purpose  besides  merely 
recording  ancient  happenings,  and  that  they  reflect  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  the  conditions  of  the  time  at  which  they  were 
written. 

From  our  study  of  the  circumstances  under  which  the  Kojiki 
and  Nihongi  were  compiled,  we  see  that  these  annals  are  no 
exception  to  this  rule.  And  so,  if  we  inquire  further  into  the 
political  conditions  existing  during  the  time  in  which  they  were 

83 


produced,  may  it  not  be  possible  for  us  to  find  some  satisfactory 
explanation  of  the  Takamanohara  episode? 

By  the  year  457  A.  D.,  the  probable  beginning  of  the  authentic 
history  of  Japan,  we  find  the  strong  Emperor  (Yuryaku)  holding 
his  court  at  Yamato  and  exercising  his  power  most  effectively, 
not  only  in  Japan,  but  also  in  the  southern  kingdoms  of  Korea.25 

During  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kimmei  (540-571)  two  rival 
heads  of  clans,  Monomobe  and  Soga,  together  with  a  Shinto 
High  Priest,  Nakatomi,  were  participating  in  the  government, 
each  seeking  supremacy. 

In  545  the  King  of  Pekche  presented  the  Yamato  Court  with 
an  image  of  Buddha.  Seven  years  later,  Pekche  again  sent  a 
copper  image  of  Buddha  and  copies  of  some  of  the  sacred  books, 
with  the  following  message:  "This  doctrine  is,  among  all,  most 
excellent,  but  it  is  difficult  to  explain  and  difficult  to  understand. 
Even  the  Duke  of  Chou  (the  Chinese  sage)  and  Confucius  did 
not  attain  to  comprehension.  It  can  produce  fortune  and  retri- 
bution, immeasurable,  illimitable.  It  can  transform  a  man  into 
Bodhi.  Imagine  a  treasure  capable  of  satisfying  all  desires  in 
proportion  as  it  is  used !  Such  a  treasure  is  this  wonderful  doc- 
trine. Every  earnest  supplication  is  fulfilled  and  nothing  is 
wanting.  Moreover  from  farthest  India  to  the  three  Han  (Korea) 
all  have  embraced  the  doctrine,  and  there  is  none  that  does  not 
receive  it  with  reverence  wherever  it  is  preached.  Therefore 
thy  servant,  Myong  (the  King  of  Pekche),  in  all  sincerity,  sends 
his  retainer,  Nori  Sachhi,  to  transmit  it  to  the  Imperial  Country, 
that  it  may  be  diffused  abroad  throughout  the  home  provinces 
(Yamato)  so  as  to  fulfill  the  recorded  saying  of  the  Buddha, 
'My  Law  shall  spread  to  the  east.'  "26 


25.  N.  pp.  233-260. 

26.  N.  p.  331.    Aston,  Vol.  II,  p.  66. 

84 


The  Emperor  Kimmei,  encouraged  by  Sogano-Iname,  head 
of  the  Soga  Clan,  was  inclined  to  accept  this  new  religion.  But 
Mononobe,  head  of  the  Military  Clan,  and  Nakatomi,  the  Shinto 
Priest,  objected  to  its  introduction. 

From  this  time  the  factional  struggle  became  one  for  and 
against  Buddhism.  After  a  protracted  contest,  the  Soga  clan, 
favored  by  the  Emperors,  succeeded  in  exterminating  the  Mono- 
nobe Clan,  and  at  the  same  time  reducing  the  power  of  the 
Shinto  priest.  It  was  after  this  struggle  that  Sogano-Umako, 
head  of  the  victorious  clan,  co-operating  with  Prince  Shotoku,  a 
Buddhist  and  a  great  reformer,  compiled  the  national  history  as 
well  as  the  catalogue  of  families,  which  were  burned  on  the  eve 
of  the  Soga  downfall.  Buddhism,  having  been  adopted  by  the 
ruling  class,  spread  rapidly  among  the  people.  But  the  real 
motive  of  the  Soga  clan  in  advocating  the  new  religion  was  not 
religious,  but  purely  secular  based  upon  greed  and  the  desire 
to  gain  military  and  economic  supremacy  over  rival  clans.  After 
accomplishing  their  purpose  and  rinding  no  strong  clans  to  oppose 
them,  the  Sogas  naturally  came  into  conflict  with  the  Imperial 
authority,  and  by  their  high-handed  conduct,  they  finally  brought 
about  the  political  subordination  of  Imperial  prerogatives,  which 
became  merely  nominal,  while  the  Sogas  were  actual  rulers  of 
the  nation. 

The  desperate  situation  of  Nakatomi,  the  high  priest  of  Shinto, 
can  be  easily  imagined!  But,  in  spite  of  their  humiliating  con- 
dition the  Shinto  priests  headed  by  Nakatomi  were  using  every 
means  to  find  a  way  to  regain  their  former  strength. 

At  the  same  time  the  situation  of  the  Imperial  family  was 
deplorable.  They  therefore  made  common  cause  with  the  Shinto 
priests  in  endeavoring  to  throw  off  the  tyrannical  rule  of  the 
Sogas.  For  a  long  time,  they  worked  together  secretly  and 
finally  the  day  of  reckoning  came.  In  the  year  645  A.  D.,  upon 

85 


the  arrival  of  the  Korean  Envoys  at  the  Yamato  Court  with  trib- 
ute, the  brave  Prince  Nakano-Ohoye,  aided  by  Nakatomi's  party, 
killed  Sogano-Iruka,  the  Soga  heir,  on  his  way  from  Court.  The 
troops  then  attacked  the  Soga  palaces  and  exterminated  the  fam- 
ily. 

This  is  known  in  Japanese  history  as  the  coup  d'etat  of 
645  A.  D.27 

Upon  the  triumph  of  the  reformers,  Empress  Kogyoku  vol- 
untarily abdicated,  and  on  the  advice  of  the  foresighted  statesman, 
Nakatomino  Kamako,  the  mild,  gentle,  elderly  Prince  Karu  be- 
came Emperor  (Kotoku),  for  it  was  plain  that  to  place  upon 
the  throne  Prince  Nakano-Ohoye,  an  energetic  leader,  would 
arouse  a  reactionary  movement  and  precipitate  a  bitter  struggle. 
He  was  therefore  content  to  be  named  as  Prince  Imperial.  Upon 
his  accession,  Emperor  Kotoku,  in  announcing  Taika  as  the 
name  by  which  his  reign  should  be  known,  made  the  following 
declaration:  "Heaven  covers  us,  earth  upbears  us,  the  Imperial 
way  is  but  one,  yet  in  this  degenerate  age  the  order  of  Lord  and 
vassal  was  perverted,  until  Supreme  Heaven  by  our  hands  put 
to  death  the  traitors.  From  this  day  forth,  the  Emperor  will  no 
longer  divide  his  power,  and  his  subjects  will  no  longer  divide 
their  allegiance.  Upon  any  person  who  ignores  this  edict,  Heaven 
will  lay  a  curse  of  death"28 

Then  they  began  the  work  of  reorganizing  the  government 
following  the  Chinese  Tang  system.  They  also  made  extensive 
social  and  economic  reforms.  The  result  is  known  as  the  Great 
Reform  of  Taika. 

Thus  the  Imperial  authority  was  once  more  restored  to  the 
throne,  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  rising  tide  of  the  Shinto  cult 
and  power  of  its  high  priest  Nakatomi  were  irresistible. 


27.  N.  pp.  42-424. 

28.  Aston,  Vol.  II,  pp.  197-198. 


86 


In  669  A.  Dv  when  the  Emperor  Tenchi  (formerly  Prince 
Nakano-Ohoye)  was  reigning,  his  great  Minister  Nakatomino- 
Kamako  died.  During  Nakatomi's  last  illness  the  Emperor  vis- 
ited him,  in  spite  of  the  objection  of  the  other  ministers  to  such 
an  unprecedented  action.  After  this  visit,  His  Majesty  conferred 
upon  the  dying  statesman  the  name  of  Fujiwara-Kamatari.  He 
was  buried  on  the  summit  of  Tamu,  where  stands  a  shrine  in 
his  memory. 

The  extent  of  the  Fujiwara's  (formerly  Nakatomi)  influence 
over  the  Imperial  Court  can  be  seen  by  the  famous  Code  of 
Taiho  promulgated  in  702  A.  D.,  which  shows  that  the  Jingik- 
wan,  or  "Board  of  Shinto  religion,"  stood  at  the  head  of  all 
other  governmental  organs,29  and  this  great  office  belonged  to 
the  Fujiwara  family. 

Dr.  Ariga  attempts  to  explain  why  the  Jingikwan  was  placed 
first:  "If  a  state  has  its  origin  in  military  prowess,  which  is 
essentially  human,  then  by  human  agencies  also  a  state  may 
be  overthrown.  Insure  against  such  vicissitudes  a  throne  must 
be  based  upon  something  superior  to  man's  potentialities.  Divine 
authority  alone  fulfills  that  definition,  and  it  is  because  the  throne 
of  Japan  had  a  super  human  foundation  that  its  existence  is 
perennial.  Therefore  the  Jingikwan  stands  above  all  others  in 
the  government."30  But  it  goes  without  saying  that  this  explana- 
tion ignores  the  historical  events  stated  above. 

The  Code  of  Taiho  was  the  work  of  an  Imperial  Commission 
headed  by  Fujiwara-Fuhito,  son  of  Fujiwara-Kamatari,  whose 
daughter  was  a  consort  of  the  Emperor  Mommu  (697-707 
A.  D.).31 


29.  Taiho-no-Ritsu-Ryo. 

30.  Ariga, /'Kodai-ho-Shakugi,"  pp.  29-30. 

31.  Zokunihongi. 

87 


At  the  time  that  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi  were  compiled, 
Fuhito  was  exercising  tremendous  power  in  the  Court,32  and  the 
national  histories  covering  the  period  from  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Mommu  to  that  of  the  Emperor  Koko  (697-887  A.  D.) 
were  compiled  principally  by  the  Fujiwaras.  These  histories, 
together  with  the  Nihongi,  are  known  as  the  six  national  his- 
tories (Rokkokushi).  Moreover  the  "Rules  and  Regulations  of 
the  three  generations"  (Sandai-Kakushiki)  which  were  promul- 
gated during  the  years  810-923  A.  D.,  were  also  the  work  of 
the  Fujiwara  family.  The  catalogue  of  families  (Seishiroku), 
completed  in  814  A.  D.,  was  another  undertaking  of  this  family. 

Thus  the  great  task  of  historical  work,  as  well  as  law  mak- 
ing, was  entrusted  to  the  descendants  of  Nakatomi,  whose  ances- 
tors had  been  only  Shinto  priests.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note 
that  from  the  time  that  the  daughter  of  Fuhito  became  Imperial 
Consort,  many  Empresses  have  been  chosen  from  this  family, 
even  down  to  the  present  day. 

Such  is  the  historical  background  of  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi. 

It  is  easy  to  ascertain  from  the  Nihongi  and,  for  that  matter, 
from  the  Kojiki  that  the  scattered  myths,  traditions  and  records 
were  collected  and  from  them  those  accounts  selected  which  were 
best  calculated  to  glorify  not  only  the  Imperial  line  but  the  fam- 
ilies of  the  powerful  nobles. 

If  we  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  legends  and  records 
were  chosen  by  the  Fujiwara  (Nakatomi)  family  who  exercised 
tremendous  power  at  court  and  who  were  descendants  of  the 
Shinto  priests,  and  again  consider  the  Japanese  legend  contained 
both  in  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi,  together  with  the  archaeological 
evidences  of  three  centers  of  early  Japanese  culture,  we  may  be- 
gin to  get  some  light  upon  the  legend  of  Takamanohara  or  "Plain 
of  High  Heaven." 


32.  Zokunihongi. 

88 


But  to  what  conclusion  does  this  light  lead  us? 

The  preceding  chapter  makes  it  clear  that  the  early  Japanese 
immigrated  from  Korea.  The  earliest  among  them  settled  in 
Izumo  perhaps  under  the  Chieftainship  of  Izanagi  and  Izanami, 
and  by  the  efforts  of  Susanoo  and  Onamuji,  Izumo  became  pow- 
erful and  prosperous,  extending  its  sway  over  the  neighboring 
provinces.  During  this  later  development  of  Izumo,  another 
immigration  of  Japanese,  probably  under  the  leadership  of  Ninigi, 
took  place  in  Tsukushi  (somewhere  in  northern  Kiushiu). 

In  the  course  of  time,  the  Izumo  people  moved  to  Yamato  in 
order  to  establish  a  center  near  the  Yemishi  frontier.  For  the 
same  reason  the  inhabitants  of  Tsukushi  proceeded  toward 
Hiuga.  Subsequently,  the  Izumo  people  at  Yamato  began  to 
separate  into  smaller  groups  on  account  of  factional  struggles, 
and  bands  of  brigands  appeared  here  and  there.w  Meanwhile  the 
Tsukushi  people  at  Hiuga  also  had  internal  dissentions  which 
were  probably  referred  to  in  the  legend  by  the  story  of  Hosuseri 
and  Hohodemi.  So  here,  as  in  Yamato,  bands  of  brigands  in- 
fected the  land.  Many  years  elapsed  before  Prince  Senu,  the 
great  military  leader  of  the  Tsukushi,  finally  began  his  conquest 
of  Yamato.  He  organized  an  expedition  and  proceeded  into 
Yamato,  where  after  long  and  hard  fighting  he  reduced  the  Chiefs 
to  submission,  thereby  gaining  supreme  power  over  Japan. 

Among  his  followers,  the  ancestors  of  Nakatomi  and  Imibe 
were  perhaps  serving  as  Shinto  priests. 

Between  the  Yamato  conquest  and  the  sixth  century  A.  D., 
the  Japanese  people  had  no  reliable  records  but  depended  chiefly 
upon  oral  transmissions  of  the  stories  of  Izumo,  Tsukushi,  and 
Yamato.  During  the  latter  part  of  this  period  the  influence  of 
Chinese  classics  and  Buddhism  began  to  be  felt  and  the  Japanese 


33.  Supported  by  the  accounts  of  Kotoshiro,  Itakeru  and  the  great 
shrine  of  Miwa. 


legend  did  not  escape  the  effects  of  this  influence.  At  the  time 
of  the  Empress  Suiko  it  became  the  fashion  to  learn  Chinese  clas- 
sics and  Buddhist  doctrines.  The  Great  Minister  Sogano-Umako, 
desirous  of  glorifying  his  clan,  co-operated  with  Prince  Shotoku, 
who  earnestly  wished  to  have  a  national  history  compiled.  This 
work  has  been  lost,  but  had  it  remained  it  probably  would  have 
been  of  a  widely  different  character  from  either  the  Kojiki  or 
Nihongi.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Soga  family,  the  Emperors 
desired  to  have  a  grand  Imperial  history.  But  it  is  possible 
that  they  would  have  accomplished  very  little  along  this  line  with- 
out the  assistance  of  the  Fujiwara  family.  Therefore  the  Em- 
perors nominated  members  of  this  family  to  take  charge  of  the 
work  of  compiling  the  national  history. 

Naturally,  the  Fujiwaras  were  eager  to  associate  the  glory 
of  their  family  with  that  of  the  Imperial  line.  But  since  they 
and  their  ancestors  were  high  priests  of  Shinto  they  dealt  with 
the  history  from  the  standpoint  of  that  cult. 

In  this  task,  however,  the  Fujiwaras  were  confronted  by  the 
existence  of  two  cycles  of  independent  legends,  namely,  those 
of  Izumo  and  Tsukushi.  It  is  obvious  that  a  connecting  link 
must  be  found  to  unify  these  independent  legends,  and  it  was 
for  this  purpose  that  the  Takamano-hara  episode  was  adopted 
or  created. 

The  story  was  so  constructed  as  to  make  it  appear  that,  even 
though  Tsukushi  came  into  existence  later  than  Izumo,  originally 
the  whole  of  Japan  belonged  to  Takamanohara.  For  this  reason, 
Izumo  had  no  right  to  an  independent  existence,  and  so  the  story 
of  Onamuji's  abdication,  together  with  the  account  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  great  shrine  of  Izumo  and  the  origin  of  the 
present  Senge  and  Kitashima  families,  appears  in  the  legend  in 
order  to  expound  the  patriarchal  principle.  Another  problem 
which  had  to  be  solved  by  the  compilers  of  the  annals  was  the 
justification  of  the  Yamato  conquest  by  Prince  Senu  according 

90 


to  the  patriarchal  principle.  For  this  purpose,  they  again  used 
Takamanohara,  and  also  the  story  of  Nigihayahi,  the  ancestor 
of  the  mononobe  clan.  In  all  their  references  to  Takamanohara, 
they  made  it  resemble  the  Yamato  of  their  own  time,  idealized 
according  to  the  beliefs  of  Shinto. 

The  terms  Heavenly  Kami  and  Earthly  Kami,  which  really 
referred  to  the  inhabitants  of  Tsukushi  and  other  people,  seem 
to  have  been  created  in  connection  with  this  Takamanohara  epi- 
sode. 

If,  therefore,  the  stories  of  Amaterasu  (The  Goddess  of  the 
Sun)  and  the  three  treasures  were  true,  they  must  have  been 
related  to  Tsukushi. 

The  belief  that  Takamanohara  was  adopted  or  created  by  the 
compilers  of  the  annals  seems  to  be  further  supported  by  the 
Shinto  rites.  In  every  house  in  Japan  we  keep  at  present  a  charm 
of  Amaterasu  (the  Goddess  of  the  Sun)  and  on  Shinto  festivals 
the  sacred  car  containing  a  spirit  of  Shinto  Kami  (superior)  is 
guided  by  Saruta  who  is  also  described  in  the  Japanese  legend 
as  the  vanguard  of  Ninigi,  the  august  grandchild  of  Amaterasu. 

One  of  the  shinto  rituals,  which  is  said  to  have  been  recited  by 
Nakatomi  on  many  occasions,  also  supports  the  artificial  creation 
of  Takamanohara.  Dr.  Florenz  has  translated  it  admirably  into 
German.  It  reads:  "Ich  kiinde:  In  der  erlauchten  Gegenwart 
des  Suverans,  des  edlen  Kindes  von  Gross- Yamato,  welcher  als 
menschlich-gegenwartiger  erlauchter  Gott  das  grosse  Land  der 
acht  Inseln  regiert,  stelle  ich  ehrerbietigst  die  Lobrede  auf  Grund 
der  Gratulations-worte  des  himmlischen  Gottes  fest. 

"Des  suverans  teures  Gottliches  Ahnenpaar,  welches  in  hohen 
Himmelsgefilde  gottlich  residert,  versammelte  allergnadigst  durch 
seinen  Befehl  die  acht  Millionen  Gotter  und  legte  im  hohen 
Himmelsgefilde  die  Grundlage  zur  Verwaltung  und  erteilte  ihm 


ehrerbietig  Befehl  mit  den  Worten:  'Seine  Hoheit  der  Suverane 
erlauchte  Enkel  soil  das  Land  der  f  rischen  Reisahren  des  iippigen 
Schefgefildes  als  ruhiges  Land  friedlich  regieren  und  auf  dem 
himmlischen  hohen  erhabenen  Sitz  der  himmlischen  Thronfolge 
erhaben  wohnen  und  als  himmlisches  erlauchtes  Mahl  (und) 
longdauernde  erlauchte  Speise  und  fernhindauernde  erlauchte 
Speise  tausend  Herbste  und  fiinfhundert  Herbste  frische  Reisah- 
ren friedlich  und  ruhig  in  gereinigten  Hofe  Geneissen !'  Und 
nachdem  er  vom  Himmel  herabgekommen  war  diente  der  ent- 
fernte  Ahn  der  Nakatomi  Seine  Hoheit  Ameno  Koyane34  ehrer- 
bietig in  der  erlauchten  Gegenwart  seiner  Hoheit  des  erlauchten 
suveranen  Enkels. "35 

This  is,  of  course,  an  hypothesis.  But  if  we  can  accept  this 
explanation  of  the  possible  significance  of  Takamanohara  in  the 
Japanese  legend  it  becomes  easy  to  solve  the  problem  of  the 
origin  of  the  Japanese  State. 

As  archaeological  research  has  shown,  the  geographical  distri- 
bution in  western  Japan,  of  double  mounds  which  are  regarded 
as  the  tombs  of  higher  personages,  suggests  that  in  ancient  times 
there  were  many  petty  principalities,  each  having  its  own  king 
or  chief.  If  we  consider  the  legend  without  the  Takamanohara 
episode,  we  find  that  it  also  indicates  the  existence  of  petty 
kingdoms. 

Thus,  when  Ninigi  arrived  at  Tsukushi,  he  found  a  local  chief 
Nagasa  and  the  Kami  of  the  Mountains.  The  quarrel  between 
Hosuseri  and  Hohodemi  point  to  the  existence  of  petty  princi- 
palities in  Kiushiu.  When  Prince  Senu  was  in  Tsukushi,  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Wobashi,  the  local  Chief  of  Ada,  and 


34.  The  alleged  ancestor  of  the  Nakatomi,  subsequently  the  Fujiwara 
family. 

35.  Mittheilungen  der  Deutschen  Gesellshaft  fur  Natur  und  Volker- 
kiinde  Ostasiens,  in  Tokio,  Supplement-Helf  zu  Band  VI,  pp.  56-57.    C.  f. 
Norito    (Nakatomi-Harae). 

92 


afterward,  proceeding  toward  the  east,  he  encountered  numerous 
chieftains  in  central  Japan,  among  whom  Kotoshiro,  whose 
daughter  he  married  at  Yamato,  and  Nagasune  were  probably  the 
most  powerful.  Even  the  Izumo  rulers  before  they  removed  to 
Yamato  do  not  appear  to  have  extended  their  sway  beyond  the 
neighboring  provinces. 

We  may  therefore  fairly  say  that  before  Prince  Senu's  con- 
quest of  Yamato  there  was  no  one  who  exercised  great  power 
over  a  considerable  geographical  area  and  its  inhabitants. 

Prince  Senu's  Yamato  conquest  was  not  reconquest,  as  is 
contended  by  those  holding  the  patriarchal  theory,  but  was 
prompted  by  a  desire  for  economic  and  territorial  expansion.  The 
Nihongi  states  that  "  'now  I  (Prince  Senu,  residing  at  Tsukushi) 
have  heard  from  an  old  man  that  in  the  east  there  is  a  fair  land 
encircled  on  all  sides  by  blue  mountains.  I  think  that  this  land 
will  undoubtedly  be  suitable  for  the  extension  of  the  Heavenly 
task.  Why  should  we  not  proceed  thither  and  make  it  the  cap- 
ital?' All  the  Princes  answered  and  said,  'The  truth  of  this  is 
manifest,  this  thought  is  constantly  present  to  our  minds  also. 
Let  us  go  thither  quickly.'  "36 

Thus  it  appears,  both  from  records  and  external  evidences, 
that  the  theory  of  the  patriarchal  origin  of  the  Japanese  state 
cannot  be  supported  by  scientific  investigation. 

If  it  is  true  that  the  Japanese  state  began  with  Prince  Senu's 
Yamato  conquest,  when  did  this  event  take  place? 

The  Nihongi  assigns  the  coronation  of  Emperor  Jimmu 
(Prince  Senu)  to  the  year  660  B.  C,  but,  as  we  have  seen,  this 
is  based  only  upon  an  arbitrary  calculation.  Professor  Naka, 
comparing  Chinese,  Korean  (especially  Pekche)  and  Japanese 
records  and  estimating  the  average  life  of  ancient  Emperors 

36.  Aston,  Vol.  I,  pp.  110-111. 

93 


in  these  three  countries  to  be  thirty  years,  concludes  that  Jimmu's 
coronation  probably  took  place  in  the  first  half  of  the  first  cen- 
tury B.  C.87  Dr.  Kume  fixes  the  date  at  30  B.  C.,88  while  Pro- 
fessor Yoshida  puts  it  at  343  B.  C.39 

If  we  regard  the  following  passage  from  the  Chinese  record 
as  credible,  we  are  inclined  to  accept  Professor  Yoshida's  esti- 
mate :  "The  Was  (the  Japanese  people)  dwell  southeast  of  Han 
(Korea)  in  a  mountainous  island  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean.  Their 
country  is  divided  into  more  than  100  provinces.  Since  the  time 
when  Wu  Ti  (B.  C.  140-86)  overthrew  Korea  they  have  com- 
municated with  the  Han  (the  Chinese  Han  dynasty)  authorities 
by  means  of  a  postal  service.  There  are  thirty-two  provinces 
which  do  so,  all  of  which  style  (their  rulers)  kings,  who  are 
hereditary.  The  sovereign  of  Great  Wa  (Japan)  resides  in 
Yamato."40 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  all  Japan  was  con- 
quered by  this  time,  for  the  Japanese  annals  speak  of  a  state  of 
turmoil  in  northern  Japan  as  late  as  the  twelfth  Emperor  Keiko's 
reign,  and  of  constant  fighting  against  the  Yemishi  until  they 
were  finally  pacified  by  General  Sakanoue  during  Emperor 
Kammu's  reign  (A.  D.  782-805). 

A  Chinese  record  states  that  "during  the  reigns  of  Hwanti 
and  Lint  Ti  (A.  D.  147-190)  Wa  (Japan)  was  in  a  state  of  great 
confusion  and  there  was  civil  war  for  many  years,  during  which 
time  there  was  no  Chief.  Then  a  woman  arose,  whose  name  was 
Pimihu  (himeko  in  Japanese).  She  was  old  and  unmarried,  and 
had  devoted  herself  to  magic  arts,  by  which  she  was  clever  in 
deluding  the  people.  The  nation  agreed  together  to  set  her  up 

37.  Shigaku-ZZashi,   Vol.   VIII. 

38.  Kume,  Kodai-shi,  pp.  105-106. 

39.  Yeshida,    Nichikan-Koshidan,   pp.    118-119. 

40.  See  Aston,  "Early  Japanese  History,"  p.  53. 

94 


as  queen.  She  has  1,000  female  attendants,  but  few  people  see 
her  face,  except  one  who  serves  her  meals,  and  is  the  medium 
of  communication  with  her.  She  dwells  in  a  palace  with  lofty 
pavilions,  surrounded  by  a  stockade,  and  is  protected  by  a  guard 
of  soldiers.  The  law  and  customs  are  strict.  Leaving  the  queen 
country  (Yamato)  and  crossing  the  sea  to  the  east,  one  arrives 
after  a  voyage  of  100  Li  at  the  Konu  Country,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  are  of  the  same  race  as  the  Wa,  but  are  not  subject  to 
the  Queen."41  This  description  seems  to  be  verified  by  archaeo- 
logical research,  which  points  out  that  in  Kwanto,  especially 
Kotsuke  province,  there  are  double  mounds  and  primitive  sites 
suggesting  the  location  of  the  capital  of  the  Konu  country. 

We  have  in  northern  Japan  many  shrines  of  warriors  who  are 
associated  with  the  Takamanohara  legend.  For  example,  there 
is  one  at  Kashima  to  Takemikazuchi  and  another  at  Katori  to 
Futtsu. 

But  they  must  be  regarded  only  as  a  political  device  whereby 
Shinto  justified  force  wherever  it  was  employed  by  the  Japanese 
conquerors. 

This  shows  us  that  the  key  of  Japanese  history  is  to  be  found 
in  Shinto,  for,  without  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  signifi- 
cance of  Shinto,  which  has  always  been  the  political  religion  of 
the  country,  we  cannot  hope  to  understand  either  the  legend  or 
history  of  Japan. 


41.  See  Aston,  "Early  Japanese  History,"  p.  55. 

95 


CHAPTER  IV. 
GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS. 

Thus  we  have  considered  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  state, 
as  well  as  its  racial  origin,  subjects  so  perplexing  and  fascinating 
that  students  may  easily  be  led  into  ways  of  error.  Nevertheless, 
in  spite  of  mistakes  in  detail  in  the  handling  of  our  materials  we 
seem  warranted  in  drawing  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  The  Japanese  came  from  Korea  and  before  migrating  into 
Korea  they  belonged  to  peoples  inhabiting  western  Asia. 

2.  The  patriarchal  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  Japanese  state, 
which   is   accepted   and   expounded   by   popular   and    scholarly 
writers,   cannot  be   supported  by  historical   and   archaeological 
evidence  and  must  be  said  to  have  the  same  validity  as  Filmer's 
theory  of  the  origin  of  the  English  monarchy. 

3.  There  was  in  Japan  an  aboriginal  people  living  in  a  stage 
of  culture  substantially  identical  with  that  of  the  "savage  society" 
described  by  Mr.  Edward  Jenks  in  his  History  of  Politics. 

4.  If  we  turn  from  the  misty  traditions  of  the  old  chronicles 
to  the  earliest  authentic  accounts  of  government  and  administra- 
tion in  Japan  we  find  everywhere  traces  of  conquest  and  sub- 
jugation, particularly  in  the  form  of  tributes. 

5.  In  examining  the  substructure  of  the  Japanese  state  we 
find  elements  of  patriarchalism  and  feudalism  substantially  iden- 
tical with  those  to  be  found  in  western  societies  in  the  course 
of  their  historical  evolution. 

6.  Finally,  if  by  "the  state"  we  mean  a  person  or  persons 
possessing  power  effectively  exercised  over  the  inhabitants  of  a 
considerable   geographical   area,   the   Japanese   state   originated 

96 


in  the  Yamato  Conquest  by  the  Emperor  Jimmu  (Prince  Senu). 

In  surveying  these  results,  the  student  familiar  with  the  litera- 
ture of  politics  will  readily  discover  that  they  bear  a  striking 
similarity  to  the  conclusions  reached  by  many  western  writers, 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  state  in  Europe.  The  English  scholar, 
Edward  Jenks,  agrees  with  the  German  scholars,  Oppenheimer 
and  Treitschke,1  and  their  views  are  substantiated  by  such  author- 
ities as  Stubbs  and  MaitlandT  The  historical  view  is  thus  summed 
up  by  Professor  Charles  A.  Beard:  "The  real  origin  of  the 
state,  in  western  Europe,  at  least,  is  to  be  found  in  conquest, 
although  it  must  be  admitted  that  power-bearing  individuals  were 
previously  rising  within  the  older  patriarchal  group  as  a  result 
of  the  economic  discipline  they  were  able  to  impose  on  their  slaves 
and  semi- free  kinsmen. 

"A  military  leader  and  his  war  band,  in  search  of  plunder  and 
sources  of  steady  income,  conquer  and  fuse  settled  communities 
loosely  united  by  kinship,  and  settle  down  upon  the  subject  popu- 
lation as  the  ruling  authority,  absorbing  surrounding  areas  by 
divers  processes.  General  Blucher  echoed  the  spirit  of  the 
ancient  founder  of  the  state,  when,  on  viewing  London  from  the 
dome  of  St.  Paul's,  he  exclaimed,  'Was  fur  Plunder/  In  the 
beginning,  the  power  of  the  leader  is  checked  by  his  war  band, 
but  the  threads  of  dominion  are  slowly  gathered  into  his  hands, 
especially  after  he  becomes  king  and  receives  religious  sanction, 
though  in  the  exercise  of  his  battle-born  authority  he  may  be 
always  thwarted  or  swayed  on  many  policies  by  his  warrior  aris- 
tocracy and  the  Church  Militant."2 

If,  therefore,  our  theory  regarding  the  origin  of  the  Japanese 
state  can  be  accepted,  does  it  not  show  that  evolution  of  human 
society  has  been  the  same  in  the  East  as  in  the  West? 

1.  Edward  Jenks,   History   of  Politics;    Oppenheimer,     The    State; 
Treitschke,  Politics,  Vol.  I,  pp.  3-106. 

2.  Beard,  Politics,  pp.  17-18. 

97 


VITA. 

Born  at  Miyagiken  Rifumura,  Japan,  on  March  3rd,  1891. 

Waseda  University  of  Tokio,  A.  B.,  1913. 

Columbia  University,  A.  M.,  1916. 

Scholarship  for  study  abroad  from  Waseda  University. 


OC 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


